ABSTRACT: This paper analyzes how graphic novels convey the concept of testimony, using Art

Transcription

1 1 Liane Gaasendam Word count: 4845 ABSTRACT: This paper analyzes how graphic novels convey the concept of testimony, using Art Spiegelman s Maus: A Survivor s Tale and And Here My Troubles Began as the main subjects. The medium specific qualities of graphic novels have the ability to convey testimonies to the audience like both novel and film cannot, steering the audience s understanding of testimony. As graphic novels are comprised of equal parts of visual and textual elements, they have the ability to emphasize the problematic truth in testimonies. Furthermore, the juxtaposition of present and past can emphasize how testimonies simultaneously exist in both times, and the addition of extra material can allow the reader to become a witness to second generation survivor hardships.

2 2 The Graphic Novel as Testimony: Truth, Present, Past and Witness in Art Spiegelman s Maus I think anybody who liked what I did in Maus had to acknowledge that it couldn t have happened in any other idiom (MetaMaus 165). According to Astrid Erll, media technologies are not neutral containers for memory semioses, and instead their specific materiality, their potentials and limits contribute to the character of the message (Erll 122). It is important to investigate different media that are used for the narration of memory since our relationship to the world [ ] is shaped by (and the world is made accessible through) the possibilities for distinction which media open up, and the limitations which they thereby impose (Krämer qtd. in Erll 114). Comics are juxtaposed pictorial and other images in deliberate sequence, intended to convey information and/or to produce an aesthetic response in the viewer (McCloud 10) and this medium has become important in memory studies over the last few decades. Its medium specific qualities make it an interesting object to study since all telling modifies what is being told (Langer 40). Throughout the years, comics have evolved drastically, from the Bayeux Tapestry and an epic pre-columbian manuscript in South-America found by Hernán Cortes, containing a story about a military and political hero (McCloud 10), to simple humoristic cartoons in newspapers or comic magazines, to comics with literary value like Persepolis by Marjane Satrapi and Maus: A Survivor s Tale and And Here My Troubles Began by Art Spiegelman. Comics as a medium have proven to be very successful throughout time, and recently also act as a medium to narrate testimonies. I intend to investigate how the medium-specific qualities of comics contribute to the narration of testimony. In the specific case of Art Spiegelman s Maus, what exactly do this graphic novel s medium specific qualities add to testimony?

3 3 Unlike in both film and novels, graphic novels offer interplay of visual and text that steers the audience s understanding of the testimony. Several instances in Maus offer this combination of both visual and textual narration that influences how the testimony is conveyed. When examining Maus, it becomes clear that graphic novels offer a new way of narrating testimony which differs from both novels and films. This is due to the equal combination of visual and textual elements, the juxtaposing of time between and within panels, and the strategically added extra material within the story. These medium specific qualities emphasize the problematic concept of truth in testimonies, highlight how a testimony exists between both past and present, and allow the audience to become a witness to second generation survivors. Maus: A Survivor s Tale, of which the subtitle is My Father Bleeds History, and Maus: And Here My Troubles Began are collected together in The Complete Maus 1, which is referred to as Maus. This story is centered on Art Spiegelman interviewing his father Vladek about his experiences during the Second World War 2. The graphic novel was a great success and concluded in much unexpected media attention. In 1992, part I of Maus was the first graphic novel ever to win a Pulitzer Prize (Boddy). The story jumps between past and present as Art draws Vladek s story in the past along with his narration in the present and then comes back to the present where he draws how Vladek is narrating. All characters are presented as mice, cats, dogs and pigs, respectively representing the Jewish, the Germans 3, the Americans and the Polish. This portrayal is symbolic for the cat and mouse game of the Nazis and Jewish people (MetaMaus 118), but also underlines the dehumanization during the Holocaust, where Jewish people were considered to be the rats of mankind (115). Not only does Art portray the story of how Vladek survived World War II with Anja, Art s mother, but he also portrays his relationship with his father, and how his father is now with his new wife Mala. He 1 I will be referring to this complete volume throughout the paper and take the page numbers and quotes from here. It will be referred to as Maus in order to save space. 2 To avoid confusion, I will use Art whenever I speak of the Art within the graphic novel, and his full name, Art Spiegelman, or his last name, Spiegelman, to refer to the author. 3 There is an emphasis on the Nazi Germans, although every German in Maus is represented as a cat.

4 4 includes pieces from his own life that were affected by his parents s experiences during the Holocaust as well, like a comic in which he portrays how he felt about his mother s suicide after the Holocaust. Art s childhood and life have been affected by the Holocaust as he bears witness to his parents s experiences (Berger 45), resulting in postmemory: the relationship that the generation after bears to the personal, collective, and cultural trauma of those who came before-to experiences they remember only by means of the stories, images, and behaviors among which they grew up. These experiences were transmitted to them so deeply and affectively as to seem to constitute memories in their own right. (Postmemory.net) The graphic novel is simultaneously the story of Vladek, the first generation survivor, but also the story of the continuation of the Holocaust for the first generation and the second generation. The medium has many qualities at its disposal, as the graphic novel is shortly said a comic with a beginning and an end. Although the definition of a graphic novel has been said to be rather difficult to find (Van Ness 7), Alan Moore, the author of the successful graphic novel Watchmen, said that graphic novels, as somebody in a marketing department decided by them that they should be called (Vylenz) are the same as comic books. According to Scott McCloud s Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art, the graphic novel is simply the evolution of the art form of comics (McCloud 23), and can be considered, after all a lengthy comic book 4 (Van Ness 5) with the same medium specific traits. The graphic layout of Maus consists out of illustrated panels, text balloons and captioned narrations that all together form the testimony of Vladek memories and Art s postmemories as he is bearing witness to his father (Berger 45). 4 Although the debate on graphic novels and comic books is not yet settled, in my paper I will simply look at the medium specific features of Maus, and not whether or not it is a comic book or graphic novel. I will therefore use the term interchangeably as both definitions encompass the same features except that graphic novels tend to have more literary value.

5 5 The equal combination of visual and text on each page is that which distinguishes graphic novels from other media and emphasizes the tricky concept of truth in testimonies. Testimonial literature can be considered a narrative told in first person by a narrator who is the protagonist or a witness of the events he or she is relating and it often involves the tape recording and then the transcription and editing of an oral account by an interlocutor who is an intellectual, journalist, or writer (Stoll qtd. in Beverley 81). A testimony is, thus, the narration of an individual s memories, who was a witness to the events. In the case of Maus, Vladek is telling his testimony to Art, but at the same time, Spiegelman conveys his testimony to the audience by putting not just Vladek s story into the graphic novel, but the interview he conducts to get his father s information. Spiegelman uses the equal combination of images and text to convey both Vladek s and his own testimony, but with this, also emphasizes the problems he had to discover the truth in his father s testimony. Although Spiegelman only illustrates his own, as well as his father s memories in the story, as it was his desire to literally [give] a form to [his] father s words and narrative (Spiegelman qtd. in Chute 200), and not those of others, he includes several instances that indicate how testimonies often lack truth since they are simply the memories of an individual. In testimonies, the truth is subjective, as it regards that which someone remembers. In the case of the Holocaust, Dori Laub states that many survivors of the Holocaust who speak little about it, or have only started talking about it, find it often difficult to narrate what happened to them many years later. If their story remains untold for too long, the survivor can start doubting the reality of the actual events (Laub 64). This is because the Holocaust was such a gruesome event that the reality seems unreal, and the survivors can eventually fail to be an authentic witness to [him or] herself (65). In addition, Lawrence L. Langer, upon listening to an interview with Holocaust survivors and their children, stated that he realized that all of them were telling a version of the truth as they grasped it and that several currents flow at differing depths in

6 6 Holocaust testimonies (Langer xi). To speak of personal experiences during the Holocaust can be considered an impossible task for the witness, as it is often too gruesome to describe, making the testimony prone to the addition of metaphors and irregularities (Margalit 165). Although Spiegelman is often found suffering because his father cannot narrate his memories chronologically, he also struggles with the truth of Vladek s testimony and uses medium specific qualities to show this. An example of this can be found on page 110 (Figure 1.1). Here, Art describes the story of Vladek remembering how the Nazis treated Jewish children. However, since this is not something Vladek actually saw, it is portrayed differently than in the rest of his story. Figure 1.1: page 110 of The Complete Maus, where Art illustrates how his father remembers being told of an event. First, there is a panel showing how Vladek is talking and how Art is writing down what he is saying. The following panel shows Vladek s narration and an illustration of Nazis and

7 7 children, one of which is crying out loud. The panel after this shows the movement of a Nazi soldier beating the kid against the wall, but the actual bashing against the wall is outside of the panel. The next panel shows the Nazi holding the kid by his foot, but the place where the kid hit the wall is covered by a speech balloon of Vladek, saying: This I didn t see with my own eyes, but somebody the next day told me (Maus 110). Here, Art used the panels and the speech balloons to illustrate how Vladek was not an eyewitness to this event, and therefore cannot remember what exactly took place. The image of the child beaten against the wall is therefore outside of the panel, as Vladek could not have known what it had looked like. Since Art is only narrating his father s testimony and his own, these illustrations had to be different to show that it is not his actual memory. Vladek, as an eyewitness in his own testimony, should tell what his [ ] eyes saw, and not provide testimony based on hearsay (Margalit 163) because he cannot know whether the story told to him is true or not. Spiegelman illustrates this by covering the memory up, so to speak, with the speech balloons of Vladek narrating his testimony. These kinds of instances offer more possibilities to convey a truthful testimony, because the reader recognizes this panel is different than the others, yet at the same time emphasize how the truth in a testimony is something very tricky. It is only after Vladek has already told Art the story, that he mentions he did not see this with his own eyes, so it was part of Vladek s initial narration of his testimony to Art, but not part of his truthful eyewitness account, therefore it is portrayed, but not shown as the truth. In another instance, Vladek does not remember seeing an orchestra, when Art has clear references that there was. On page 214, there are two panels that show how the Jewish people marched to work (Figure 1.2). Although Art includes the orchestra in the first panel because he has recently come across welldocumented references that there was an orchestra that played for the inmates as they marched through the gate of Auschwitz on their way to work, his father claims that he does not remember an orchestra. Therefore, Art includes the orchestra in the next panel, but has the

8 8 inmates covering the musicians so that only the tops of their instruments are visible. Spiegelman says later that I have the orchestra being blotted out by the people marching because that s all [Vladek] remembers (MetaMaus 31), however, he uses the visual aspects at his disposal to not completely remove the orchestra, but simply to cover it up, so that both he and Vladek get their way. Here, the covered up instruments are as important as the text debating its existence. Figure 1.2: page 214 from The Complete Maus, where the problem between fact and testimony is addressed. The fact that Art includes the first panel and their debate on the facts of the orchestra indicates that he intended to show how the testimony of someone who has lived through something gruesome is not always the factual truth, but merely a memory of a witness. Therefore, the equal combination of text and illustrations creates a possibility to subtly emphasize the problems with the truth in an eyewitness testimony. Secondly, the juxtaposing of time that is possible in comic books indicates how testimonies exist in both in the past and present. In Maus, two kinds of juxtapositions of past

9 9 and present can be found: one brings the reader back to the present immediately by adding Vladek on top of the panel illustrations and one where both past and present are presented within a single panel. Although there have been movies which have similar means wherein past and present are always present (Jordan), these other works never quite offer the same effect as comics can by literally juxtaposing the equal images and text either in one page or even one panel. According to Lawrence Langer, testimony is a form of remembering (Langer 2), and memory links the past to the present and future as it is a presence of the past (Bal vii). Remembering happens in the present, while that which is remembered is the past. Langer revealed that witnesses in [ ] testimonies do not search for the historicity of experience, nor do they try to recapture the dynamic flow of events. They are concerned less with the past than with a sense of that past in the present (Langer 40). Therefore, in a story that is trying to make chronological and coherent the incomprehensible, the juxtaposing of past and present insists that past and present are always present (MetaMaus 165); as a testimony is the narration of individual memory, and memory is that which happens in the present, but concerns the past, the juxtaposing of past and present within Maus emphasizes how a testimony really is (Sinclair ). What Spiegelman intended to do was narrate Vladek s story chronologically, but at the same time highlight whenever he became distracted by other memories of the Holocaust, or whenever the memory had a sudden clear effect on his present life. Two examples of the clear juxtaposing of time where the reader is suddenly brought back to the present are the panels on page 76 and 117. Page 76 (Figure 2.1) is essentially a reminder to the reader that Vladek is cycling on an Exercycle (MetaMaus 167) when he is telling his testimony, but also to show how the reader enters into the past via the wheels of the bike (Spiegelman qtd. in Chute 205). Here, Vladek enters into Anja s family household again. At the top left the reader experiences Vladek in the present, after which the reader enters into the house via a large window. Upon reading further, each pane of glass

10 10 becomes a panel repeating what the reader saw at the top half, along with Vladek s captions of who he remembers that everyone is. Figure 2.1: page 76 from The Complete Maus where Vladek visits Anja s family and uses the architectural approach to a page (MetaMaus 167). At the bottom Vladek is shown again on his bike as he informs Art how Herman and Hela survived. On the next page, the whole scene is presented again, but this time without the

11 11 division (Maus 77). Spiegelman implies that this demonstrates the sort of thing that comics are made to do, allowing a visual narrative to not be a simple reiteration of the text ( ), but using the visual to juxtapose the past and present via those window panes. The reader enters into Vladek s mind via a window, but is reminded of the present at the beginning and the end within one glance. Without the drawings, the story would be unable to jump between past and present in such a way that it is perceived on one page. In addition, on the last panel on page 117 (Figure 2.2), Vladek remembers how he and Anja were saved by Haskel, a Jewish man who managed to get around by making combinacya to stay alive; a crook (Maus 118). Figure 2.2: page 117 from The Complete Maus, where Vladek remembers the last time he saw his in-laws. Vladek remembers how Anja s parents were not saved, even though Haskel took their jewels as payment for freeing them. Vladek, in the present, is shown with a speech balloon: his head is down as he narrates what happened to his in-laws, emphasizing the shame he still feels presently. Next to him there is a drawing of a terrified and screaming father with the bottom caption: He was a millionaire, but even this didn t save him his life, where the words save

12 12 him his life have been enlarged as an emphasis of his untimely death. Like on page 76, where Vladek in the present remembers who survived, the sudden transition from past to present in this panel is almost symbolic for the transition from life to death. Vladek was telling the story, but as soon as he informed Art of his in-laws s death, the reader is immediately brought back to the present to see how Vladek is still affected by it today. Right after this memory, Vladek is drawn taking telephone wire from the street because it is something very rare (Maus 118). Spiegelman hereby uses the tools at his disposal to indicate the continuation of the experiences of the Holocaust in Vladek s daily life 5. This method of sudden juxtaposing emphasizes how the present and the past are connected because remembering the past suddenly has a great impact on the present. Spiegelman therefore chose to immediately bring the reader back to the present to witness the effects of the story on Vladek. The juxtaposing of past and present directly next to each other emphasizes how the Holocaust still has many implications for contemporary life that can be triggered by memory. Additionally, two further examples of the more gradual juxtaposition of the past, in which the past is simply integrated into the panel of the present, can be found on pages 86 and page 239. The subtitle of the first volume of Maus is called My Father Bleeds History, and is symbolic for how Vladek is figuratively bleeding his testimony to the reader; he is suffering by telling it (Chute 203). According to Alison Mandaville, there appears to be a constant struggle for narrative control in Maus (Mandaville 216), where Art is pushing Vladek to tell the story, but Vladek is pained by telling it. Art is using his father s bleeding to textually and visually rebuild Vladek s memories (Chute 203). However, the same kind of bleeding is also a concept in comic books. Instead of making a character pop to the front, like what is done in Figure 2.1 and 2.2, images can bleed from one panel to another (McCloud 73). In 5 Essentially, this is also what the mouse metaphor in Maus does. Many Jewish people who survived the Holocaust have protested against this image of Jewish people as pathetic and defenseless creatures (MetaMaus 125) because it indicates that not just during the Holocaust, but also after (as Vladek and Art are also mice in Maus s present) Jewish people remain the weak victims of the Holocaust.

13 13 comics, the space between the panels is called the gutter (66), this is what divides one image from another, and images can bleed into this gutter. This means that even though the borders of the image are the panel borders, the reader will not consider the image to actually stop there, but rather imagines the spatiality of the image to extend way beyond this border. This indicates, for example, that two completely different images can be put next to each other, but the reader will connect them automatically and form the panels into a coherent story. Scott McCloud argues that this imagination mostly stems from to the fact that between panels, no senses are required at all, which causes the reader to be more alert (89). Vladek s bleeding does not just refer to the pain it causes him to tell the story, but also refers to the bleeding of his story from one panel to another, however, most importantly: it refers to the bleeding of past and present within the panels. The bleeding within a panel is something that is more interesting, as it requires the reader s alertness to shift from past to present, or vice versa, without being given the gutter as a division. Instead of creating a sudden transition from past to present, this bleeding makes the horrible images slowly appear in the background, and allows the reader to return to the past gradually. Because it is the past that is disturbing Vladek the moment he speaks of it, to bleed in Maus indicates that the images from a different period in time are seeping into another, which is exactly the case on page 239 and 86. The panel on page 239 (Figure 3.1) depicts Vladek narrating while in the car and the car is driving past the hanged bodies of four former friends of Anja. Figure 3.1: page 239 from The Complete Maus where Vladek remembers four executed Jewish girls.

14 14 This is where contemporary life and the past come together in one panel, which indicates that the memory is presently haunting Vladek. This merges Vladek s traumatic memories of this event with Art s postmemories and offers the reader a chance to witness two generations at the same time. Here, Art s postmemories and Vladek s memories are presented within one panel, allowing the reader to witness both past and present at the same time, without the sudden transition from past to present between panels which happened in Figure 2.1 and 2.2. In addition, the most vivid bleeding juxtaposition can be found on page 86 (Figure 3.2), which contains three different instances in time. Vladek has just been confronted with Jewish people who were executed publicly. In the first panel, his past self is shown, but the narration is from the present. He is haunted by the images of the executed which are shown slightly transparent and dark, dangling above his head. Next to him Richieu is playing and Anja is comforting him. Figure 3.2: page 86 from The Complete Maus where Vladek remembers four other executed Jewish people. This panel is interesting as it juxtaposes two instances of the past simultaneously with the present. Vladek is remembering the further past of the hanging, in the past that the present Vladek is narrating. So the image of the four executed are in the furthest past, yet the image of

15 15 Vladek sitting at the window remembering this is in the past as well, but the captions are from Vladek telling the story in the present. The images of the hanged in the past once again bleed into another presented time, where this time Vladek s figure is shown, bent under the weight of the memory hanging above his head. These instances where two different eras bleed into each other are different from those where the reader is suddenly brought back to the present, although its purpose is the same: to show how the past and present are always interconnected in memory. Spiegelman emphasizes the connectedness of past and present in a testimony with these juxtapositions of time, and this also creates a story that lacks the chronology found in standard written testimonies (Langer 41). Written testimonies, such as Charlotte Delbo s Auschwitz and After provide the reader with a harrowingly gruesome description of the Holocaust, but, according to Langer, always adopt a certain teleological attitude (Langer 42). The events that transpired during the Holocaust were so horrid, that those who lived through it cannot help but question its purpose in their narration. He adds that many survivors who write about their experiences of the camps must adopt some strategy for providing entry to the reader's imagination into that distant world (42). Spiegelman, on the other hand, juxtaposes the past and present so that the story seems like an oral testimony by Vladek, illustrated with images to show his experiences, but including the reactions of Vladek to his questions and the dynamic between them. Although Spiegelman uses symbolism and adopts a chronological narration, he emphasizes how difficult it is for Vladek to keep to this story, often showing himself getting angry that Vladek is not keeping to the chronology of his story (MetaMaus 206). In addition, by splitting the narration between past and present Vladek, Spiegelman manages to present a certain dual self (Langer 48) that is often found within survivors of the Holocaust. Langer speaks of survivors who split themselves, creating two personages, one in the present and one in the past, and in present life consider themselves someone else than that version of themselves that lived through the Holocaust, yet at the same time they are one

16 16 person. Spiegelman s sudden transitions from past to present suggest the split between characters, yet the merged past and present within one panel indicate those people are one after all. So, the graphic novel offers more possibilities to convey a testimony as a combination of the present and the past by both positioning the past and present right next to each other and by letting the past and present merge into each other. Lastly, extra added materials, such as photographs or other narrations, allow graphic novels to position the reader as a witness to the continuation of the Holocaust. Strategically added material in Maus, integrated into the story and between the panels on the same pages, creates an emphasis on that which is added. Prisoner on the Hell Planet, the comic Art Spiegelman added within the story in Maus offers the reader insight into Art s testimony. This is a comic that Spiegelman published in an obscure underground comic book (Maus 101) called Short Order Comix (Chute 207) about Anja s suicide years after the Holocaust. The last panel on page 101 gives a miniature of Art holding the comic, after which it is enlarged for the reader to read it like Art and the other characters did. The hand which is holding the comic on page 102 (Figure 4.1), puts the reader in the viewpoint of Art reading his own comic inside the Maus storyline. This puts the reader in the driver s seat (McCloud 114), where he or she becomes the vehicle, or in this case, the character. This hand can be argued to work as a call for the reader to receive Art s testimony directly, as both Vladek and Mala have read the comic as well, and the reader is hereby placed within the characters experience, as the reader is offered the same information that was offered to them. Although the audience cannot fully be placed within the characters and their experiences, this addition improves the audience s engagement and creates a better understanding of the characters and their actions. It can be compared to the engagement the reader feels when Charlotte Delbo s addresses the reader directly in Auschwitz and After (Delbo 11, 84-86, 89, 135), but in Maus, the specific

17 17 implementation of the visual elements that blend into the story are that which position the reader actually within the story. Figure 4.1: page 102 of The Complete Maus where Spiegelman is shown reading his own comic about his mother s suicide.

18 18 When considering Avishai Margalit s theory on moral witnesses, the audience becomes a kind of moral witness (Margalit 147), not because they are present in Vladek s suffering, and neither because they are present in Art s past, but because they are witnessing the present and the effects of it on the characters. With these few pages, and how they are strategically integrated into the graphic novel, Spiegelman turns the audience into a witness by showing them not first-hand what happened, but by offering them exactly what in that moment in Maus s present affected the characters. The reader becomes a witness to the continuation of the Holocaust in first and second generation survivors by being offered this extra piece of information within the story. This comic perfectly shows how Art dealt, or failed to deal, with his mother s suicide, and, thus, how the second generation was forced to deal with the traumas of the first generation survivors of the Holocaust. The fact that the whole comic is offered to the reader, instead of just the mention and the implications of it, situates the reader inside the characters. The effect of the comic is so great on both the reader and the characters mostly due to the diagonally placed photograph of Anja the other illustrated hand is holding. Susan Sontag stated that photographs state the innocence, the vulnerability of lives heading toward their own destruction and this link between photography and death haunts all photos of people (Sontag qtd. in Family Pictures 5). In the case of this picture, the photograph of Anja and young Art is placed diagonally into the story, which makes it the first thing the eye catches when scanning the page (MetaMaus 182). This puts the emphasis on the photograph in the story, giving it a very strong connection to those that view it (Hirsch 5). For the reader of Maus, this photograph and other added photos remind the reader of the real existence of the deceased survivors and bring the reader back to the real present and not the present within Maus. The addition of extra material, therefore, merges the reader into the story and allows the audience to become a witness to the events transpiring in the story, reminding them it happened in real life as well.

19 19 To conclude, graphic novels s medium specific qualities in the conveyance of a testimony can contribute several important aspects to the narration of a testimony. Upon looking at Maus and the medium specific methods that Art Spiegelman uses to convey a testimony, it becomes clear that the graphic novel offers an equal interplay of visuals and text that emphasize the problem that is found regarding the truth in testimonies. Secondly, both the sudden and gradual juxtaposing of past and present emphasize how a testimony is something that relates to both the past and the present, as remembering is something that happens in the present, but concerns the past. Lastly, the added material such as photographs and extra narrations that are integrated into the story in such a way as only comic books can do position the reader as a witness to the continuation of the Holocaust. The success of the graphic novel as a medium to present a testimony is related to how a graphic novel can play with the combination of visual elements and the text, as well as how the graphic novel s way of storytelling allows additional information to be merged into the story.

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