THE REDUCING ATMOSPHERE AND OXIDIZING ATMOS- PHERE IN PREHISTORIC SOUTHWESTERN CERAMICS. Wilson, HAROLD S. COLTON203
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1 THE REDUING ATMOPHERE AND OXIDIZING ATMO- PHERE IN PREHITORI OUTHWETERN ERAMI HAROLD. OLTON203 IT I A well known fact that the surface color of pottery made by the ancient inhabitants of the outhwest occurs (1) in shades of white and gray and also (2) in shades of red, yellow, and brown. That the differences in color between the white and gray pottery and the others are due to a difference in firing technique is not so widely known. My attention was drawn to this question on a winter morning nine years ago just after my house burned down. Among the ruins I discovered that a yellow Hjopi jar which the night before had been standing on a mantelpiece had turned a cold gray. On the other hand, a number of Hopi bowls that were stored in a window seat were still yellow. This observation led to thoughts. Thoughts led to experiments. The present paper is the result. Like the hinaman in Lamb's Essay on Roast Pig, I had to burn down the house to get the idea. Although the phenomenon described above is well known to potters and to anyone who has studied elementary chemistry, it seems to be unknown to most archaeologists. This paper presents nothing new, but calls attention to well known facts applied to a specific problem. Readers who have studied elementary chemistry will remember that the flame of a Bunsen burner is composed of three parts: an inner cone in which the gas is unburned, a middle cone which is blue and in which the gas is incompletely burned because of lack of oxygen, and an outer shell where combustion is complete and oxygen is in excess. The inner cone is called a reducing flame because, due to the lack of excess oxygen, oxides are often "reduced" to lower oxides or to a metal. The outer cone is called an oxidizing flame because the atmosphere has an excess of oxygen; in an oxidizing atmosphere many compounds containing little or no oxygen will tend to combine with oxygen-forming oxides. eramic technologists204 have long studied the effects of these two atmospheres on clays heated to different temperatures. A reducing atmosphere is produced by enclosing the sample so as to keep out air, at the same time supplying an atmosphere of hydrogen, an atmosphere of some hydrocarbon, or an atmosphere of carbon monoxide produced by charcoal or damp sawdust. On the other hand, an oxidizing atmo- 203 Director, Museum of Northern Arizona, Flagstaff, Arizona. 204 Wilson,
2 TABLE I VWHITE OR GRAY POTTERY TYPE TETED BEFORE A BLOW PIPE IN OXIDIZING AT N. A. (1) A. T. (2) ur- olor olo Pottery type ite herd Drainage face or before after number number core firing (3) firing Bidahochi Black-on-White Upper ottonwood 9AI B3 Deadmans Black-on-gray Deadmans 12A2 12J9 Deadmans Gray Deadman 126 Dogozshi Black-on-white Tsegi-at-osi 27A1 39 Kayenta Black-on-white Tsegi 43A3 F2 Klageto Black-on-white Upper Le Roux 43B1 12B4 Little olorado orrugated Upper Le Roux 136D 12E6 Moenkopi orrugated Oraibi 19A Pinedale Black-on-white ilver reek A1 A4 Pinedale Black-on-white ilver reek A2 5 Walnut Black-on-white Lower Walnut 44A1 F7 Notes: (1) Number of site in Archaeological urvey, Museum of Northern Arizona. (2) herd number in collection of type, co-type, and topotype sherds in the collection of the M (3) olor symbols from A Dictionary of olor, by Maerz and Paul, (4) The colors in this column are approximate and have no relation to the Dictionary of olo
3 226 AMERIAN ANTIQUITY [3, 1939 sphere is present when a current of air flows across incandescent clay at temperatures between 350?. and 950?. The element which colors the surface of prehistoric pottery in the outhwest, other than carbon, lead, or copper, is the limonite (or yellow ochre) which gives the clay a yellow color, as iron sesquioxide (hematite) which gives the clay a reddish or a brownish color, or as ferrous oxide or other ferrous salts which color the clay a gray or greenish tint. eramic technologists205 have found that, fired in an oxidizing atmosphere, clays with less than one per cent of iron burn nearly white; one per cent to three per cent of iron, burn buff; over three per cent, they burn red to brown. In a reducing atmosphere, clays with less than one per cent of iron burn white; one per cent to three per cent, burn gray; over three per cent, dark gray to black. The firing temperature also affects the shade of the color. ertain prehistoric people of the outhwest consciously, and sometimes unconsciously, made use of oxidizing and reducing atmospheres in firing their pottery. The modern Pueblo Indians, and all other Indians in North America, fire their pottery in an oxidizing atmosphere so that their pottery is in general yellow, brown, or red. The area in which the reducing atmosphere was consistently used was quite limited. Before 1 00 A.D., it was confined to the northeastern portion of Arizona, northwestern New Mexico, southwestern olorado, and southern Utah. If you take a compass and circumscribe a circle with the center at the point where the four states meet, and with a diameter of two hundred miles, it will include most of the area where the reducing atmosphere was used. During the twelfth century the method spread south, but after 1300 it was given up all over the area, except in the Upper Rio Grande Valley where the method was used for a hundred years longer.206 Although the present paper makes no new contribution, because the effects of firing atmospheres on pottery have long been known, yet it is necessary to distinguish oxidizing and reducing atmospheres because they are basic techniques and, therefore, of importance to archaeologists and others concerned with studying material culture. By means of the blow pipe and the use of a combustion furnace fitted with a pyrometer, the author has tested a number of outhwestern pottery types to determine how they were fired. In the early 205 Wilson, hepard, 1936.
4 TABLE II WHITE OR GRAY POTTERY TYPE FIRED IN AN OXIDIZING ATMOPHERE IN A OMBUTION TUBE AT A TEMPERATURE N. A. (1) N. A. (2) ur- olor o Pottery type ite herd Drainage face Temp. before af number number core firing (3) firin Adamana Brown Arauca Polychrome Arauca Polychrome Arauca Polychrome Arauca Polychrome oconino Gray Deadmans Fugitive Red Dogozshi Black-on-white Flagstaff Black-on-white Holbrook Black-on-white Holbrook Black-on-white Kana-a Black-on-white Kana-a Black-on-white Kayenta Black-on-white Lino Gray Lino Gray Bold Face Black-on-white Bold Face Black-on-white lassic Black-on-white lassic Black-on-white lassic Black-on-white lassic Black-on-white lassic Black-on-white lassic Black-on-white North reek Black-on-white North reek Black-on-white North reek orrugated North reek Gray t. George orrugated Three ircle Bold Face Black-on-white Tsegi Gray Tsegi Gray Tusayan orrugated Virgin Black-on-white Virgin Black-on-white Virgin Black-on-white Walnut Black-on-white Walnut Black-on-white Walnut Black-on-white Walnut Black-on-white Wide Ruin Black-on-white Winslow Polychrome A Little olorado Little olorado, Petrified Forest Little olorado, Petrified Forest Little olorado, Petrified Forest Little olorado, Petrified Forest Kana-a Deadman Dogoszhi Beko Moenkopie Rio Pueblo olorado Rio Pueblo olorado Tsegi Tsegi-at-osi Tsegi Lower Jeddito Tsegi-at-osi Tsegi-at-osi Deadman Lower Walnut Lower Walnut Lower Walnut Lower Walnut Upper Le Roux Upper Rio Grande ? 900? 12A1 A2 A2 9A1 12A2 13A2 A1 A2 17B1 Al A1 13A2 A2 12A2 B4 9A1 9A1 B3 9B4 38B2 9B4 44A1 B3 13A1 B2 Al B2 A1 AI 12A2 9A1 13A3 A2 A1 A1 22A1 12 9B B 9B 13 12J A 12J 12F E
5 TABLE III YELLOW, RED OR BROWN POTTERY TYPE TETED IN A REDUING ATMOPHERE BEFO N. A. (1) A. T. (2) ur- olor olo Pottery types ite herd Drainage face or before afte number number core firing (3) firing Flagstaff Red Rio de Flag 6B 30A1 Jeddito Black-on-yellow Upper Jeddito 9D3 35A1 Jeddito Black-on-yellow Upper Jeddito H6 38A1 Jeddito Tooled Upper Jeddito 9D3 36A1 Kiet iel Polychrome Oraibi 6F12 39A3 Pinedale Black-on-red ilver reek 5F 38A2 Tsegi Orange Tsegi A1 Turkey Hill Red Rio de Flag 6B 39E5 Winslow Black-on-orange Little olorado, Winslow E7 38A2
6 TABLE IV RED, YELLOW OR BROWN POTTERY TYPE FIRED IN A REDUING ATMOPHERE IN A OMB TEMPERATURE. TO 970?. N.A. (1) A. T. (2)' ur- olor o Pottery types ite herd Drainage face or Temp. before afte number number core firing (3) ing Bidahochi Polychrome Little olorado, Winslow 930? 3A 6A Black Axe Polychrome Little olorado, Petrified Forest 930? 4A 39 Bluff Black-on-red Lower an Juan 930? 5D 38 Deadman Black-on-red Deadman 930? 5E 39 Deadmans Black-on-red Deadman 930? 5F 39 Deadmans Black-on-red Little olorado, Leupp 970? 6D 47 Dogozshi Polychrome Tsegi 930? 5H 40 Hopi Pottery from Hano - - Polacca 930? H9 Jeddito orrugated ilver reek 930? 12B6 47 Kin Tiel Black-on-orange Upper Le Roux 930? Linden orrugated ilver reek 930? B5 40 Medicine Black-on-red Deadman 930? 5E 39 McDonald.orrugated arrizo 930? 5D 40 bold face Brown-on-cream 4748 A2 12 bold face Redon-gray A2 14 Rainbow Polychrome Little olorado, Petrified Forest 970? 4A Bl howlow Black-on-red Moencopi 930? 5E 40 ikyatki Polychrome Jeddito 970? 9D3 36 ikyatki Polychrome Polacca 970? 9D3 36 Tonto Red East Verde 930? 5B9 40 Tusayan Black-on-red Little olorado, Leupp 970? 6H Bl Wingate Black-on-red Lower Puerco 930? 50 39
7 230 AMERIAN ANTIQUITY [3, 1939 stages of the investigation he heated the specimen by a blow pipe, and later he used the combustion tube. The method used was to heat all gray or white pottery types in an oxidizing atmosphere, and all yellow, red, or brown types in a reducing atmosphere. If the white or gray types turned yellow or red, then the conclusion was drawn that the original firing was in a reducing atmosphere. If on the other hand the yellow, red, or brown pottery turned white, gray, or black, then the conclusion was drawn that the original firing was done in an oxidizing atmosphere. This holds true with the exception of certain white clays or slips free or nearly free of iron. In general, firing methods can usually be inferred from the color of the pottery without any test whatever. In the following tables, -the pottery fragments before and after firing have been matched with the color standards in Maerz and Paul's Dictionary of olor (1930). The colors mentioned in the last column of the table have nothing to do with the Dictionary of olor but are approximations which indicate roughly, to persons unprovided with the Dictionary, the changes that occur. The series of types makes no attempt to include all pottery types. It presents but a random sample picked from the 200 or more recognized pottery types of the outhwest. TABLE V HOPI LAY FROM IHOMOVI FIRED WITH DIFFERENT FUEL OUT OF DOOR TEHNIQUE MODELED ON HOPI METHOD urface urface Firing color color olor changes R Fuel temper- before after from Remarks ature firing firing heep dung 870? 12A1 D7 Gray to orange Pots protected by sherds Juniper 700? 12A1 B2 Gray to pale gray Pots protected by sherds Juniper 950? 12A1 A1 Gray to white No sherds orn cobs 685? 12A1 B2 Gray to putty color Pots protected by sherds To gain further evidence, the author has tried to duplicate the conditions that a pueblo Indian in Northern Arizona might have used between 600 A.D. and 1300 A.D. in firing gray or white pottery. It is well known that gray and white pottery is found particularly in regions where junipers furnished the most important fuel supply. He, therefore, thought that a fairly big juniper fire might produce a reducing atmosphere, and it did.
8 OLTON] ATMOPHERI ONDITION IN OUTHWETERN ERAMI 231 He selected for the experiment a series of small jars of Hopi clay, made by a ichomovi woman. The woman.burned one in usual Hopi manner with sheep dung. It burned a beautiful orange at a temperature of 850?. The author fired other bowls in juniper fires, one bowl at a temperature of 950?. and another at 700?., and one bowl in a corncob fire at 685?. In both the corn-cob and the juniper fires the iron was reduced. In the case of the juniper fire, as the fire burns out the pots are covered with a bed of charcoal which probably provides the reducing atmosphere of carbon monoxide and also acts to keep out the air. ONLUION It is important to note: (1) that pottery fired in a reducing atmosphere occurs only in a small area in the states of Arizona, New Mexico, olorado, and Utah; (2) that in northern Arizona the method was not used after 1300, but it continued to be used in New Mexico until about 1400; (3) that with one exception the basic technique can be determined by simple inspection of the color of the vessel-(a) if the pottery is white, gray, or dark gray it was fired in a reducing atmosphere, but (b) if the pottery is buff, yellow, red, or brown it was fired in an oxidizing atmosphere; (4) that pottery fired with a cedar wood at a temperature from 700 to 950?. has the iron reduced. As juniper wood is found near the places where reducing atmospheres were used, it is possible that juniper was the fuel that produced the reducing atmosphere. A number of problems have presented themselves in the course of the tests which will be treated in another paper. These conclusions apply only to the outhwest culture area. LITERATURE ITED MAERZ, A., and PAUL, M. REA, A Dictionary of olor. McGraw-Hill, New York, RIHTER, GIELA M. A., The raft of Athenian Pottery. Yale University Press, New Haven, HEPARD, ANNA O., The Technology of Pecos Pottery. Pottery of Pecos, Vol. II, New Haven, WILON, HEWITT, eramics: lay Technology. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1927.
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