Mayan Jungle Biodiversity

Transcription

1 Mayan Jungle Biodiversity BY: SABINA MASTROLONARDO ENVR 3000 December 8 th 2014

2 Table of Contents Mayan Jungle Biodiversity Mayan Jungle Biodiversity TITLE PAGE TABLE OF CONTENTS... 1 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS INTRODUCTION WHAT IS OPERATION WALLACEA?... 4 Mexico Research Location: the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve... 5 What is Conservation, Biodiversity and Their Importance?... 6 Conservation in Calakmul OPERATION WALLACEA S PRIMARY OBJECTIVES... 7 The Top Animal Biodiversity Surveys Conducted in Mexico... 8 Calakmul Research Base Camps... 9 How Operation Wallacea is Collecting Accurate Biodiversity Data... 9 Replication, Replication and More Replication Mark-Recapture Sampling What May Animal Survey Data be Used For? The Monitoring Methods of 4 Key Animal Groups and Habitat Surveys Birds Bats Large Mammals Herpetofauna Habitat ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES AND FEASBILITY Bird Survey Suggestions Bat Survey Suggestions Mammal Survey Suggestions Herpetofauna Survey Suggestions Habitat Survey Suggestions CONCLUSION REFERENCES FIGURES CITED

3 Acknowledgements The data within this written report is all thanks to the help of many people, researches and new friends for gathering all the research during this past field season and those in previous years. It was with everyone s great contribution efforts in the various animal conservation projects that brought the made the data possibly. What a pleasure it was meeting so many wonderfully interesting people this summer making this an experience of a lifetime filled with the most memorable moments. A huge thank you Operation Wallacea for existing! Without this fantastic organizations work, animal conservation would not be as proactive as it is, nor would my adventure have been able to take place. Thank you for providing me with all the life experience I will hold onto forever. Keep fighting the good fight. A big thank you to Dr. Kathy Slater, who was one of the senior scientists overseeing all the research projects in Mexico. You were so approachable with questions, and your lectures fumed with passion, further enticing me to work hard at gathering animal data in the field and the importance of it all. Another huge thank you to Dr. Rick Baydack for making this course, and therefore this report possible to share all that I learnt and my experience gained in Mexico. Thank you for also always being an amazing professor and mentor, I couldn t ask for a better role model. Thank you to Dean Norman Halden, Clayton H. Riddell Faculty of Earth, Environment, and Resources for supporting my expedition by providing a monetary contribution from the Faculty Endowment Fund. Last but certainly not least, thank you to my amazing family and friends for supporting me, and letting me be adventurous to find my true passion in life and helping make my trip to Mexico happen. 2

4 1.0 Introduction Mayan Jungle Biodiversity The following report outlines the animal conservation efforts that were conducted this past summer in Calakmul, Mexico for the 2014 field season through Operation Wallacea running for a total of eight weeks. I participated as a research assistant for three weeks beginning on June 16 th until July 7 th In September 2014 the World Wildlife Fund released a report on the current health of the planet discussing an enormous decline in biodiversity. The Living Planet Report documents the state of the planet, regarding ecosystems, biodiversity, and pressures on natural resources, tying into what all this means for humans and wildlife 1. The discoveries show that between 1970 and 2010, 52% of the worlds biodiversity has been vanished 1. This shows a massive drop in the last 40 years for population sizes of mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles and fish. If this is not a clear warning sign or clear enough scientific data collected to make some changes, there is something wrong with our anthropocentric world. Change is needed and it is time for volunteers, students, scientists, researches and professors to get into the field and work together on bringing overall biodiversity to a stable level. The planet proves to not be all doom and gloom and that there are some positive stories such as the Bengal tigers in Nepal slowly increasing in their population size because of tougher government restrictions on poaching in protected areas 2. Also the mountain gorillas are increasing too across the Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda and Rwanda 2. It is imperative to take action to amend the impacts humans are imposing on the planet, but it is equally important to promote the success stories. Stories like Operation Wallacea s are radiating positivity, as they gather groups of researchers to study in the field and collect biodiversity data to provide a comprehensive view of the health of our one and only planet. 3

5 Figure 1: Left over structure in Mayan Ruins Figure 2: Alouatta pigra yucatanensis or the Yucatan black howler monkey in the upper canopy 2.0 What is Operation Wallacea? Operation Wallacea is an organization funded by tuition fees that run a series of biological and conservation management research programs in remote locations around the world. The various biodiversity and conservation management research expeditions are designed with specific wildlife intentions in mind from identifying areas needing protection, to implementing and assessing conservation management strategies 3. Information gathered on expeditions continue to support existing and future conservation management plans, in 4

6 addition to having high quality fieldwork data published in papers and peer reviewed journals towards scientific literature. The surveys accompanied in past years have yielded many peer-reviewed publications, showcasing the discovery of approximately 30 new vertebrate species, the re-discovery of four supposed extinct species, and over $2 million dollars levered from funding agencies to allow for the best management practices 3. Operation Wallacea (Opwall) conducts several conservation projects around the globe, one of those brilliantly diverse locations being the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve in Mexico. Mexico Research Location: the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve Located roughly eight hours northwest of the popular tourist destination of Cancun in the Yucatan Peninsula is the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, established in The Calakmul Biosphere Reserve in Mexico is a large expanse of tropical forest that is continuous with the Maya Biosphere Reserve in the Petén Province of Northern Guatemala. Collectively the forest spans over 7.5 million hectares and is known to be the largest section of tropical forest north of the Amazon 4. Unlike the majority of forest in the Yucatan region, in Calakmul there has not been cutting or elimination of forest for the use of timber nor has it been burned for agriculture, making it one of the last remaining virgin forests in Mexico 2. There have been many threats posed over the years which have led to designating the Reserve as critically threatened. This title means prompt actions must be taken to continue to protect and conserve the Reserves overall biodiversity 4. There is such an enormous range of area to cover and conserve in Calakmul. Having forest connectivity such as forest corridors are extremely important to ensure gene flow between animal populations, and they are spread out to withstand any natural disasters such as forest fires, floods and hurricanes. For example, if an animal species is isolated in one area of the Reserve and that region is confronted with a fire, all the animals will likely die, whereas if the Reserve is connected to other areas of forest, then the animals have a chance of travelling and escaping the fire to survive. Central American experiences a variation of extreme weather conditions and natural disasters throughout the year, therefore forest connectivity is extremely important 2. 5

7 What is Conservation, Biodiversity and Their Importance? The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development defines conservation as the maintenance of biodiversity, including the diversity between species, genetic diversity within species and maintenance of a variety of habitats and ecosystems 5. Various conservation strategies can include; preservation, which involves keeping some part of the environment from change, for example, needing fences and protection 2. The approach of reclamation, which restores damaged habitats, also creation, of brand new habitats such as planting native flowers to help a declining honeybee population. Lastly conservation strategies need education and in Opwall s eyes especially at a local level 2. In addition to the above rankings, well organized management also plays a very important role in maintaining a particular area. There is familiarity in the notion that globally biodiversity is at a decline and is at increased risk of extinction due to a variety of reasons. These reasons include; habitat destruction and degradation, environmental pollution, over-harvesting of wildlife and trees for human consumption, wildlife diseases, ozone depletion, and so on 2. In order to take the big picture and understand fully what is happening to global biodiversity, there must be sensible Figure 3: Ecosystem service wheel that nature provides for free ways of monitoring it at a smaller level. Specific pressures currently facing Calakmul include; human population sizes, forest for agriculture use, hunting pressures of large mammals, water consumption with the already low availability and ecotourism impacts 2. It is impossible to look at all biological diversity at the same time so it must be broken down into more manageable sections in some way. Benefits of maintaining biodiversity are necessary because ecosystems are very complex and the loss of a species can lead to an altered or collapsed ecosystem in other areas. Maintaining ecosystems proves to be of importance because they are an integral part of human s daily lives that provide many ecosystem services that Figure 3 represents. Another interpretation of this importance is preserving biodiversity gives the human race things that they need to survive that natures gives for free. But in life, nothing is free, and you must only take enough to satisfy man s needs, not mans greed. 6

8 Conservation in Calakmul Mayan Jungle Biodiversity Opwall s research in Calakmul began with an extensive project in This was the projects pilot year where accommodations were being built and transects throughout the jungle in each camp were being laid out and prepared for animal surveys to begin 2. Year two in 2013 was baseline data and year three of 2014 were both the monitoring years when data collections were in full force. This upcoming field season of 2015 will be data collection, reassessments regarding projects still working efficiently and, should all the same techniques for collecting data be applied or the research of others to be considered will also be the year where research is combined together to apply for funding for sustainable agriculture and ecotourism projects that will help the local people of Mexico to earn money in a sustainable way 2. Figure 4: Montage of various wildlife in Calakmul 3.0 Operation Wallacea s Primary Objectives Opwall s inclusive objectives are determining the abundance, diversity and distribution of flora and fauna and the key taxonomy groups of wildlife in the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve 2. The aim is to also monitor changes to the diversity over time and investigate the habitat preferences of specific species. Furthermore, to identifying the most important partitioned areas of the jungle for these species to help predict changes to their abundance and distribution over time based on changes to their habitat 2. The Additional Objectives of The Project Are: 1. To utilize survey data to better understand the habitat preferences and ranging patterns of flagship species such as jaguar, baird s tapir and spider monkeys. 2. To utilize survey data to understand the relationship between forest disturbance and the abundance and diversity of herpetofauna 3. To utilize survey data to identify the most important forest characteristics for maintaining diversity of resident bird species 7

9 4. To utilize survey data to identify the relationship between forest disturbance and frugivorous bat abundance and diversity 5. To utilize baseline biodiversity data, forest cover and carbon estimates for funding application to the REDD+ programme or obtain funding from the Global Environmental Facility 6. To design and implement a forest coverage monitoring protocol for the reserve 7. To design and implement a biodiversity monitoring protocol for the reserve 8. To create and manage a biodiversity database for Calakmul that may be used by all relevant parties to assist with management of the reserve 2. The Top Animal Biodiversity Surveys Conducted in Mexico: 1. Ornithology, the study of birds with over 360 resident species in Calakmul (14 which are endemic) 2. Chiropterology, the study of bats including; frugivorous, insectivorous, nectivorous and carnivorous bats 3. Large mammals including the felids; jaguar, ocelot, puma and margay; peccary, tapirs and deer plus spider monkeys and howler monkeys 4. Herpetology, the study of amphibians and reptiles with around 75 different species such as snakes, frogs, lizards, etc. Last not certainly not least; 5. Habitat surveying which included quantifying carbon storage value of the forests to produce carbon biomass estimates. The focus of the above chosen groups were on key taxonomy groups, so a decline in any one of them would result in noticeable changes and fluctuations of biodiversity without them. Figure 5: Agalychnis callidryas or the red-eyed tree frog Figure 6: Artibeus jamaicensis or the jamaican fruit bat 8

10 Calakmul Research Base Camps Mayan Jungle Biodiversity The main research camp for all scientists, staff, students and research assistants was located at Kilometer 20 (KM20) in addition to four other camps spread out around the Reserve which were equally used as research bases. The other camps included La Mancolona, Hormiguero, Dos Nacinoes and Nadzaca an. However Nadzaca an was closed in the 2014 field season due to water levels being too high to work in. Among each camp were a series of four trails. These trails ran out east, west, north and south of the camps which were made in previous years and are known as the transect lines for conducting surveys. With the massive amount of jungle area to be studied, the transect method allowed for samples to be collected in various areas in each camp as a great way to capture the overall biodiversity of the Reserve. Each of the four transects within each camp were two kilometers long. Two transects were created near water bodies when possibly such as the Mexican aguada s, defined as a temporary lake. Through a sampling strategy called line transects, this has proved to be a successful approach in animal conservation surveys and main method of Opwall s studies 2. Transect routes may be used to create pseudo-random sampling locations, by following a straight line through a given strata observing two meters from each side of the line to gather data 2. How Operation Wallacea is Collecting Accurate Biodiversity Data Survey teams were made up of various academics and volunteers with a shared passion to contribute to conservation in Mexico. Teams would gather daily extensive biodiversity data for the purpose of organizing effective sustainable management. Beginning on June 16 th 2014, lectures were scheduled daily to provide background and training regarding the various projects going on and the way they were conducted in Mexico. After orientation on day one of the jungle experience, all the research volunteers were divided into groups which would become their surveying group members to conduct studies with twice to three times daily for the time being. All for the sole purpose of assessing the magnificent diverse wildlife in the jungle, measuring tree ranges for carbon biomass samples and calculating sustainable buffer zones. Opwall s initiative to gather accurate biodiversity data was done by performing replication down transects and by mark-recapture sampling techniques 2. 9

11 Replication, Replication and More Replication When surveying a site, it is highly unlikely to encounter every individual of the species or group of species that you are aiming to study. Therefore, any data collected is only a start, a small sample of the total population of each species of interest. The smaller the sample size means a greater chance to see strange results just by chance that do not give a very good representation of the total population. For example, species will often not be evenly spread out throughout a study site instead, they may be clumped into areas in groups or of suitable habitats they prefer. Thus, the outcome of taking only a single sample will give very biased results. When surveying populations, the goal is to take as many repeat samples as possible in order to get an accurate estimate and to reduce the bias s that may result from a low sample size 2. Taking multiple samples, running it for a few years, both of these factors allow for reliability in the data collected and average estimates. Estimated mean values are less affected by outliers when the sample size is large, this is why replication is critical 2. Replication was conducted down each of the four transects a minimum of four times to ensure accurate data collection. Mark-Recapture Sampling Physically marking animals that are captured allows for recognizing individuals from a larger population 2. Instances when mark-recapture sampling can be used are on are small mammals, bats, mice, rats and amphibians. Markings can include coloured rings or a band around a leg, clipping fur, clipping ears or toes, nail varnish painting and marker pens 2. To use mark-recapture sampling the following steps are: Catch sample individuals from the population, mark them and release them Allow marked individuals to mix with general population Catch a second sample Figure 7: Nail polish application on bats foot Recaptures can be marked in patterns to indicate number of recaptures 2. Mark-recapture methods in Calakmul were only used to monitor birds and bats. The animals that were caught in mist nets were then analysed on site, marked with nail polish and then released. A coloured marking on the left foot meant the animal had been caught before. Another colour on the same leg meant how many times that individual had been caught, for example, white = once, yellow = twice. A brighter colour on the right foot expressed what transect that animal was capture on, for example, red = transect 1, purple = transect 2. The 10

12 markings are not permanent and meant to last only a few months, just long enough for the importance of the field season data collection, then inviting the population to be open again allowing new individuals to join. What May Animal Survey Data be Used For? Animal survey data is used by a whole array of individuals, including scientists, students and governments but generally it is used by people that want to know how best to manage a particular area and to conserve the biodiversity existing. To date, the most well-known way that biodiversity survey data is used is for the classification of species under the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species 2. It is under this system where species are categorized into levels of conservation concern based on all of the data that is available. The levels in the system are: Extinct (EX) Critically Endangered (CR) Vulnerable (VU) Least Concern (LC) Extinct in the Wild (EW) Endangered (EN) Near Threatened (NT) Other: Data Deficient (DD) Although many species have been assessed under the IUCN Red List, there is still a large number of species that have not been formally classified due to a lack of data, especially in remote locations. These species currently fall into another category called Data Deficient (DD) and yet many other species have not been assessed at all, placing them into a Not Evaluated category 2. This is why field work to gather data is constantly needed in order to categorize additional species and to update the conservation concern of those species that have been previously documented. Therefore, one very important use of survey data is to identify which species are of the highest conservation concern. The IUCN Red List provides a mechanism for doing this on a global scale, but many other databases exist that assess the conservation status of species on a national or local level 2. This collection of important data allows for people to piece together the complex puzzle of what is actually happening to wildlife populations around the globe. This is also the heart and soul of biodiversity, by maintaining species abundance and populations across the extensive jungle of Calakmul. Data relating to the biological importance of Calakmul is used to levee international funding to assist with the management of the Reserve. The data gathered each year to date will be used to draft a report using the Climate, Community and Biodiversity Alliance standards so the forest can be submitted for funding under the Reduction in Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation Scheme (REDD+) 2. The funding from the Global Environmental Facility will then be used to protect the jungle by; increasing jungle patrol and providing sustainable economic development for buffer zone communities so they are less reliant on jungle resources 2. 11

13 4.0 The Monitoring Methods of 4 Key Animal Groups and Habitat Surveys As mentioned earlier, the emphasis of the selected groups in the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve were to predominantly study the diversity and richness on the key taxonomic groups. o o o o o Birds were assessed using point counts and mist netting techniques Bats were caught with the use of mist netting and echolocation machinery Mammal monitoring by recording mammal sightings and mammal tracks encountered along the jungle transects Herpetofauna monitoring conducted with the use of pit traps, diurnal active searches and nocturnal spotlight surveys along jungle transects Habitat survey plots laid out to gather carbon biomass estimates by a range of tree measurements throughout the camps. Bird Surveying Birds are a fascinating species having evolved from the dinosaurs with some structural adaptions 125 million years ago 2. The importance of the diversity of birds in an ecosystem is they are a great indicator of the overall ecosystems health. They provide ecological services such as pollination and seed dispersion 6. Mexico is a country with great bird diversity, ranking it top ten in the world. It has 360 resident bird species until January hits when there are over 800 species of birds because of migration patterns. In Opwall s past years data collections there have been around 90 known bird species observed in mist net surveys and around 70 species identified in point counts 2. Some of the many captivating bird species include the ocellated turkey, great curassow, chachalacas, trogons, motmots, hummingbirds, parrots, toucans and many more. Figure 8: Collage of bird species caught in mist nets 12

14 The Methods of Sampling: Mayan Jungle Biodiversity 1. Mist Nets (to capture lower canopy birds) 2. Point Counts (upper canopy birds) Mist Netting Mist netting involved heading down the scheduled transect that day such as, transect three, finding a good location where there were long corridors to set up the nets, then mark down GPS location of where nets were set up. This is so when returning to transect 3, a different area is surveyed. A set of six nylon nets were set up parallel to the tree line because of bird flight patterns wanting to cross from one area over to another 2. Each of the nets were 12 meters in length and two meters in height. Once all nets were set up, researchers and scientists stepped away from the various nets to decrease noise and disturbance by human presence allowed for the birds to go on with their days, flying about. Checking the nets occurred every 15 to 20 minutes to decrease any Figure 9: Mist net stress a bird may be under if held confined in the net for too long. Assessing the Birds Once a bird was caught, the lead ornithologist would very carefully start to untangle the bird s wings and feet from the net and then place the bird in a cotton bag to be weighed, soon after just the weight of the bag in order to subtract the bag weight to get the total weight of the bird. Then a list of requirements was needed to be filled out about the individual that was caught. Properties such as, capture time, number of species caught, species scientific name, sex, weight, molt, fat, bill length, tarsus length, and body and wing length. Point Counts Figure 10: Disentangling bird from mist net With any survey study you are going to miss out or not include a section of the total population. With mist netting surveys you are likely only capturing the birds that like to fly in the lower canopy layer within the jungle 2. There are many birds such as toucans that fly near the tops of the upper canopy layer. Another bias with mist netting is you are expected to capture the small to medium range size of birds. 13

15 For example, there is an extremely low chance of an eagle flying low and being caught in the nets. This does however prove to be more an optimistic factor because a strong bird like that would definitely rip the nylon net apart damaging it for further use. Point count surveys involved heading down a specific transect and since the entire transect is two kilometers long, at the first 100 meter mark in the jungle is when you would begin the first point count. This required a team of at least three or four people to fill all the designated roles. One person to hold up a microphone to record the bird calls for a ten minute session, then repeated continuously down the transect line ten times to complete the transect. Another advantage to recording the bird calls is having it on file to later be replayed back at base camp to double check proper calls were recorded and that other songs were not missed. Another team member recorded the time of day such as 5:30 AM to ensure all ten minute point count surveys were completed. The other team members were the lead ornithologists or the bird call experts, where once each ten minute period began they would start to call out all the different bird species they heard and their best estimate of where abouts they heard it from such as; 50, 100, 250 meters away. Bat Surveying Bats are the only true flying mammal and an extremely important one to have around because they play a key role in seed dispersal in the forest (frugivorous bat species) 2. Especially for secondary forest regeneration, bats are outstanding at this job with their large flying ranges from 50 to 500 kilometers when excreting their waste to the various places they are flying over. Up to 80% of the tropical forest plants use fruits as a means of dispersing seeds and most of the fruits are animal dispersed, as it is in the bats case 2. These fruits have an appetizing and nutritional attraction that Figure 11: Bat recently removed from net the animal consumes, usually in the form of fruit pulp. Seeds within the fruit are highly nutritious but plants do not want animals destroying the seeds and are protected through structural and chemical defences. Therefore, most mammals eat the fruit and then the undigested seeds pass through the gut, excreting the wastes 2. Bats are also pollinators (nectivorous bat species) proving to be very imperative for agriculture and fruit trees such as the cashew, banana and mango trees 2. They are also very important in an ecosystem due to being noble insect controllers as they consume massive amounts of mosquitos and other bugs (insectivorous bat species). There are currently over 90 known species of bats found in tropical Mexico and past year s data through Opwall s efforts show 23 different species confirmed to have been captured in mist nets, the Jamaican Fruit Bat being the most 14

16 abundant in the Yucatan area 2. The various species are categorized as either a frugivorous, insectivorous, nectivorous or as carnivorous bat, such as the endangered Greater False Vampire bat. Chiropterology or the studying of bats, surveys under Opwall s practices were conducted using the same style nylon nets as the birds. The nylon nets were made with love and care because they are edible and digestible for the bats while trying to bite their way out, if so do ingest some of the net, has no negative effects on them 2. Bats are a nocturnal species, therefore surveys would begin around nine PM as a practical time to set up the nets and have fleets of bats beginning to fly into them. To begin surveying, a total of four or five nets would be placed in a suitable location along the transect that evening. One key Figure 12: Bat acting defense with sharp teeth difference between the bird and bat nets is placement of the nets, because bats follow wider trails such as where humans walk/hike through so the nets were placed across the transect instead of parallel with the trail. There is also a slight net size difference as well used for the bats where they were also two meters in height, but instead six meters in width. Checking back of the nets to see if there were bats caught was also required every 15 to 20 minutes to reduce any further stress the animal may be under. When bats were caught in the net the lead chiropterologist with heavy duty gloves on would remove each bat. Animals in the wild carry a handful of diseases and bats are a carrier of rabies. This is why the scientists would always wear protective clothing, and bats were an animal that students were unable to personally handle but could still assist in measurements and identifying the specific species. During Opwall s surveys there was also the use of an echolocation machine in certain camps. There was only one hand held machine available and it travelled between camps with just one lead bat scientist. Although bats have relatively good eyesight, most depend on their superb developed echolocation (or sonar) system to help navigate and capture insects in the dark. Bats emit pulses of very high-frequency sound even inaudible to Figure 13: Bats captured in bags waiting to be processed human ears at a rate of a few to 200 per second 2. The echolocater when turned on would then help draw bat species into the netted areas when the evening starting to get late and bat flying was less frequent, such as midnight when there were less abundance of bats and fewer being caught. 15

17 Assessing the Bats Once a bat was caught and removed from the net, it was carefully placed in a cotton bag to determine its weight. Other required features of the bat included; capture time, forearm length, wing span, identifying the bat species, sex, and reproductive status. Large Mammal Surveying The large mammals primary focused on in Calakmul were ungulates including baird s tapir, collared peccary, white-lipped peccary, red brocket deer and white-tailed deer. Primates were the Yucatan spider monkey and Yucatan black howler monkey. Additionally the four types of felids included; jaguars, ocelot, margay and puma. Mammal surveys were conducted by; recording live mammal sightings, mammal tracks encountered along the jungle transects and some data obtained from camera trapping within the jungle too. Large mammals are also extremely important and do an efficient job of seed dispersal in the midst of the jungle 2. Especially those mammals such as the jaguar, whose home range patterns go on for miles, or the monkey who ingests fruit at one tree and passes the seed on elsewhere. A slight different about surveying mammals was that designated transects needing to be completed, must have been Figure 14: Black howler monkey in the trees undisturbed by humans one day prior to surveying. The purpose of this sidestepping was to avoid any possible damaging to the tracks. To begin surveying, if there was a live sighting during a mammal walk, a researcher would then mark down the number of individuals seen, the distance perpendicular to the transect line and the visibility score of the sighting as best they could. Furthermore the diurnal mammal surveying began by hiking down the designated transect while observing the ground below two meters on each side of the transect line. This worked effectively if there were four researchers on a survey and two focused on the right side, and the other two on the left side. The mammal tracking continued until completion of the two kilometer long transect. Figure 15: Accidental possum sighting during a herpetofauna hike 16

18 Assessing a Track When a track was spotted on the ground, the large mammal survey sheet required the width and length of the track, measuring this first also gave the general size and shape to help identify the animal. Additional items to note were; GPS location of track, distance along the transect, age of tracks, leaf litter score which can be described as how deep does the track go in order for it to be no longer visible. Once all data was collected the track was stomped on and destroyed to avoid any future confusion of re-recording an old track. Figure 16: Assessing a track Figure 17: Mammal track reference sheet Herpetofauna Surveying Herpetofauna (herps) is the study of reptiles and amphibians collectively. Monitoring of the various species was done with the use of pit fall traps and funnel traps, diurnal active searches in the day and nocturnal spotlight surveys along jungle transects in the evenings. In both the reptile and amphibian groups there are a combined massive diversity of approximately 15, 500 different species 2. Although this number is large, both groups are in fact poorly studied in comparison to the other animal groups and many are also suffering because of their sensitive ectothermic skin exposed to the environment. Previous year s data confirmed there were 20 species of amphibians identified in Calakmul including salamanders, caecilians and 36 species of frogs and toads. For reptiles there were 144 confirmed species found of two species of crocodile, 16 species of turtles, 74 different snakes and 52 different lizards 2. The importance of having various species of herpetofauna in an ecosystem; 1. Nutrient Cycling 17

19 2. Insect Control 3. Medicinal Purposes 4. Limb Regrowth Studies 5. Biodiversity Indicators 2 The groups of amphibians and reptiles are particularly diverse allowing them to occupy a number of different habitats. Having a great diversity of species that have adapted to a wide range of habitats is often used as a gauge of the forests well-being. However, they are also particularly delicate to changes in their environment. The presence of many or only a few herps in an ecosystem is Figure 18: Pit fall trap often used as an indicator of forest health 2. Pit fall traps were set up by various scientists prior to the day you would want to check back. Figure 18 is a great visual of the setup of a pit fall trap. The small drift fences act as barriers to intercept and guide the various herps into the pitfall trap, or funnel trap, placed directly adjacent to the fence. Beginning of herp surveys was very similar to mammal surveying in that you would start by hiking down the transect through the jungle while observing all around two meters on each side of the transect line. This also worked successfully with team work by dividing the sides evenly to search more efficiently. The herp tracking continued down the two kilometer long transect until completed, looking to identify any herps spotted and when they were, the catch-assess-release method was used. Once a herp was spotted, it was anyone s task to catch it but it was very important if it was a lizard or a gecko to not grab either of their tails because of a defence mechanism the animal uses to escape from other predators by dropping half of their tails 2. As students studying conservation, having the animal waste its predation defence by dropping their tail just to assess the animal and then free them would be unfortunate. Assessing the Herp Once a herp was caught and cautiously placed in a bag, then finding out its overall weight when the weight of the bag alone was subtracted. The weight alone of the herp helped to identity the exact species it may be, and the age of whether it was an adult or juvenile. Also to be noted was the GPS location where spotted, the distance along the transect, the length of the SVL (snout, Figure 19: Assessing species with field guide of amphibians and reptiles vent length), the LT (length of tail), whether the animal is camouflage or aposematic, the time found and last but not least, identifying the species scientific name and the number of individuals caught. 18

20 Habitat Surveying Figure 20: Example of five habitat plots down a transect Mayan Jungle Biodiversity Habitat surveys were created and plotted in many areas throughout each camp. They were conducted down all four transects every 400 meters apart. Each transect line was two kilometres in length making it possible to create five habitat plots down just one transect. Therefore among each camp a total of 20 habitat plots were created (4 transects x 5 repetitions = 20). Surveying began by walking down the designated transect that day up to the 400 meter point. With the help of a group, a measuring tape, string and spray paint you could then begin to create the habitat plot by mapping out a large 20x20 meter square. Within the entire square, there was further division of the area into four smaller squares within the large area. The main purpose of habitat surveys were to quantify how much carbon trees are storing. They also gave information on the abundance of different animal species and their habitat preferences such as in understory vegetation or tall fruiting trees 2. Habitat surveys may be the most important of all the surveys because the general concept is that every animal encounter habitat variables such as the mean tree height or distance from a water source, to supplement the animal data to investigate what combinations of variables are preferred by specific species 2. This determines where certain animals truly want to be, revealing their niches. Also presenting key habitat preferred areas to protect and conserve 2. Supplies required for habitat surveys were; a measuring tape, string, knife, touch pole, canopy scope, ruler, clinometer and spray paint. Habitat surveying further divided into two methods: 1. Carbon biomass survey 2. Forest structure survey along a transect (ex. an amphibian captured or tapir track) can be linked to the nearest habitat plot. Thus providing a series of 1. Carbon biomass surveying Carbon biomass surveying began by labelling all of the trees with a number that were over 15cm in circumference with tape and a marker. These numbers were later translated into the scientific Mayan tree species name determined by a knowledgeable Mayan local man. Next bit Figure 21: Hike through the jungle 19

21 of information to gather was to determine if the tree was dead or alive. If the tree was dead however that would be noted but it still got measured because of its ability to still store carbon. For all of the trees over 15cm just the labelling was adequate, for the trees over 30cm however more measurements needed to be done 2. Always a two person job was measuring the angle with a clinometer to determine you could see the top of the tree canopy. Also the distance from the observer to the tree, both of these measurements determine the overall height of the tree using trigonometry. If the topography of the land happened to be a hilly region, taking an angle reading while standing on a gradient then required an additional angle measurement. The angle from the observer to the base of the tree gave you the precise tree height even while on a slope. An additional barrier is dealing with slanted trees, this also required the observer to take two distance measurements. One from under the crown of the tree and one angle from even further back once again to properly measure the height of the trees. It was obligatory that all angel readings were to be under 70 degrees to get an accurate number and avoid infinite numbers during final calculations in a spreadsheet. Lastly for carbon biomass surveys, were if trees had fallen on the ground, most of which are dead, a length of the fallen tree needed to be measured to get the height and see how much carbon was being stored. 2. Forest structure surveying During forest structure surveys one person s job was to count the number of samplings, or trees that were smaller than 15cm in diameter. This number was counted within each of the four plots to collect data on the understory vegetation to see the foliage and density that some species may prefer over large branches and trees. Following was with the use of a canopy scope (or roughly the equivalent to a blank cd case cover covered in equal black dots) within the large plot standing at five different points and looking upwards to calculate how much canopy cover there is by comparing how much sky we can see. This is used to help determine the abundance of fruiting trees in the area which supply large amounts of food to monkeys 2. Next was leaf little depth, also conducted at five different points within the large square. This was done to find out the composition of the ground, thus giving us information on what certain animals/herps prefer as habitats. Lastly for forest structure surveys was using a touch pole to also study understory vegetation. The touch pole was a three meter pole divided by black tape six times up the pole by 50cm increments. Walking down the midline of the plots along the two ten meter strings within the large Figure 22: Jungle Habitat 20

22 square you would put the touch pole down five times each way. The pole placed on the ground vertically and then counted the number of touches to the pole that any type of vegetation comes into contact with. The number usually ranged from zero to ten giving a number on the amount of vegetation present along the three meter height. 5.0 Alternative Approaches and Feasibility Not every conservation plan, idea and implementation leads to initial success. Ecosystems with their varying climate, topography, and various flora and fauna within it differ tremendously around the globe. It takes time and trial and error to reach success, to prove a positive change is being made and proper data is being recorded. In the following section alternative approaches to animal conservation are presented as suggested improvements of the way surveys could have been conducted differently, and possibly better than Operation Wallacea s current methods in Mexico. Bird Survey Suggestions Due to the large number of bird species present in the Yucatan region, the number one suggestion for bird survey improvements would be to have a field manual provided for all ornithologists and researches. Having a uniform manual for everyone involved in the survey projects would increase time and accuracy. A manual to set up and disassemble the mist nets would increase time because setting up six, two meter high nylon nets, twice daily would improve greatly after the second or third try after reading this manual. In opposition to not going off any manual, just word-of-mouth instruction required much more time, questions and people on the task. Mist nets are very time consuming and must be set up without errors. During Opwall s bird surveys, much time was lost explaining how, where and why then necessary. This was then repeated daily and even weekly when new students were on bird duty for the day, then weekly when new student groups and researched were joining and leaving each of the research camps. In addition, having a uniform manual for how to assess the birds would also greatly improve the consistency of Figure 23: Measuring bird s bill length the data collected. Various ornithologists around the globe have been educated at many different institutes where there are different ways and rules of measuring birds. A manual provided to all research teams would insure that everyone was following the exact same guidelines bringing in alike information. Another suggestion to improve surveys in bird populations is active bird nest searching. Nesting is of huge importance to many bird species, it is who they are and part of their livelihood. Active searches for nests would 21

23 involve; what kind of nest it may be and the location and height of the nests, to allow determination of what bird species the nest belongs to. Many nests in a given area, or even few nests both provide insight to where birds may prefer to be, and where they may find a place they think is safe to raise and care for their young. To ensure success, important background knowledge on how to identify the birds must be taken before hand. Knowing various bird characteristics such as; size, coloration, vocalizations, and habitat preferences 7. Although Opwall conducted their field season during eight weeks in the heart of the summer season, active bird nest searching can be problematic during that season where vegetation is thriving. In the winter season and during non-breeding seasons, when many leaves from trees have fallen, it is then an easier task to see where old nests were located, and this also reduces disturbance to active nests 7. Searching for nests also takes a lot of patience and often times, choosing to specialize in finding just a few bird species nests, instead of the entire population, with background knowledge included may lead to success 7. Bat Survey Suggestions A harp trap is an alternative device that can be used to capture bats. The hard trap provides an advantage in that bats are not exposed to a net that requires disentanglement from traps like mist nets and hand nets. The harp trap acts as a significant tool to obtain information on bat populations, their movements and conservation management 8. The harp trap can be described as a double layer of very fine vertical wires are hung from the top of the trap and lead into a collecting tray. The bats detect the first layer and turn sideways to try to fly between them. They then straighten up and hit the second layer and slide down the wires into the collecting tray 8. A critical aspect and what may be a disadvantage of the harp trap is bats need to be removed from the trays immediately as they can attack each other while trapped inside 2. As mentioned earlier, during Opwall s surveys there was one bat Figure 24: Harp net trap sound detector for use, but travelled to the various camps with one bat scientist. Therefore another suggested improvement would be having multiple sound detectors during the field season to enhance the amount of bats flying into the nets. Turning on an echlocator around 11 P.M, when bat foraging slows down, would hopefully attract in more bat species than there would be flying around without any use of equipment. There is a wide range of different bat equipment available from detecting to recording and identifying bat species as well. The equipment chosen can be narrowed down by cost, the range of the frequency calls and its various functions. Currently, the most widely available bat detectors use heterodyning, a radio signal processing technique where frequencies are 22

24 created or combined 9. It works by picking up the bat calls by an ultrasonic microphone and then mixed with the output sound of a high frequency oscillator within the bat detector 9. In comparing the harp trap and use of bat detectors, a study was conducted in Brisbane, Australia with a total of 27 different sites, all sampled twice each. The study showed that 12 species of bats were recorded by the bat detectors and four species were captured from the harp traps. The bat detectors had recorded significantly more species per site than were captured by hard traps, in each of the three habitat sites and overall 10. Furthermore to add to this alternative approach is possibly the need for a sound and call library of sounds for the different bat species to enhance greater accuracy between all bat scientists and researchers recording data. Lastly, another minor suggestion is to have Figure 25: Inspecting bats wing to human hand similarities more, or extra, long term/durable nylon nets than currently using. During surveys in Mexico, large bats had the ability to destroy the nets beyond repair, and bat with large teeth as well for example the P. parnelli species a type of insectivore bat munches its way through and out of the net 2. Mammal Survey Suggestions The famous philosophical question is raised in, if an animal is in the forest, but no one is there to see it, was it really ever there? It is not until installing some high-tech camera or video equipment in various areas that then allow wildlife biologists to determine the animals that are present. Large mammal surveying tends to be the most difficult to reach success because of the difficulty of seeing wildlife in their terrestrial home ranges. The various alternative approaches presented to survey mammals could be; the use of sand traps, camera traps and small mammal trapping. i. Sand traps Sand traps can be put together fairly easily, it involve little effort and supplies such as; sand, a bucket, a rake and bait if necessary 11. Sand is spread Figure 26: Camera trap attached to tree out around a two feet wide area, with the bait in middle area and left over the day and night to then check back at to identify species tracks with a guide book 11. Taking photographs or sketching the track is also a good idea for future clarification. 23

25 ii. Camera traps A camera trap, also known as a trail camera can be used in the absence of researches to capture wildlife on camera. It is usually motion censored, or passive infra-red sensor and activated to snap a photograph with flash when an animal is detected nearby 12. There is little human interference and are no risks or harm posed on wildlife with these traps set up on trees or other sturdy vegetation available in the field, making them extremely useful and successful 12. Important things to consider is the placement of the camera, you want an area where you are more likely to see wildlife such as travel routes or a river where they may congregate. Also to place camera where there are no visual blockades in front or tall grass that sways in the wind, setting off the camera. Overall, for most medium to large sized mammals, camera traps have proven to be an effective tool for surveying 12. iii. Small mammal trapping During Opwall s field season there were no trapping or tracking of small mammals. This raised many questions by other researches asking why was this not being done to then have a better estimate of the larger mammal s food available in the jungle. Most small mammals are primary consumers, abundant in many ecosystems as they serve several important ecological roles, for instance representing the primary prey for many carnivores and other large mammals 13. A popular tool that can be used to capture small animals is the Sherman trap. The Sherman trap is a box-style animal trap aimed at capturing small mammals inside with the use of bait, either grains or seeds 14. The trap has been around since 1955 making it the most safe and environmentally friendly method still being used extensively by researchers in the field. The Sherman trap is also the industry standard in live animal trapping and research worldwide 14. The trap is made up of eight hinged pieces of sheet metal which permit the trap to be collapsed for Figure 27: Sherman trap storage or transport 15. The trap costs under $30.00 and comes in the folding, or non-folding variations of the trap 14. Herpetofauna Survey Suggestions An alternative suggestion for improving herpetofauna surveys is performing mark-recapture sampling. This was not done on herpetofauna in Opwall s studies and by executing this, it allows for recognition of individuals among the huge population of reptiles and amphibians in the jungle 2. The use of this method of marking and recapturing could help aid in the decline of herps worldwide to get a further representation of how much is actually out there. The data collected from mark-recapture methods can be done on snakes and most lizards by making a small incision under the skin. Also, nail polish can be used to mark a herp on their tail. A disadvantage to marking 24

26 is it not always an easy and safe task and can pose risks to mark frogs because toe clipping in their case can be intrusive. A study was conducted testing the effects of toe clipping on frog survival on the blacksmith tree frog (Hypsiboas faber) and it was found that although variable at times, overall there was little difference in the recapture probabilities of frogs that had a toe clipping taken 16. Also concluded was that frogs having more than one pad removed, and instead two or three toe pads removed, there was then a slight decrease in their survival for recapture 16. Each technique brings on its own advantages and disadvantages, and they can also be used in combination with each other or singularly. Diurnal searches take a significant amount of time and also poses some bias in the data due to the different skill levels of the observers. Uses of pitfall and funnel traps have been a popular tool in the field of conservation research. A suggestion for Opwall to better improve their data would be to bring in much more pitfall traps, and improve their area in scope. By adding additional traps, more netting and building a trench beforehand to push soil back would increase the region where herps can travel to, hopefully being captured. The pitfall and tunnel traps are not exceedingly complicated, instead they are very affordable, can be made at home and are easily transported to set up at a different location. Another minor suggestion that can go a long way is to limit the amount of students allowed on a herp walk. For example, there was a maximum cap of six students with one lead researcher during a daytime or nighttime walk. Once the field season was in session, some herp walks were not overly successful, with a four hour hike ending in only a maximum of Figure 28: Funnel trap on end with drift fencing ten species identified. Snakes were rarely caught and accounted for, with their incredible senses to pick up the vibrations from the ground, scurrying away. Therefore, to increase herpetofauna data collection, this can reach success by reducing human disturbances and noise from hiking with fewer researchers. Habitat Survey Suggestions Habitat surveys in Mexico seem to be on a very good track and to date there are no future recommendations or approaches needed. Opwall is gathering excess data because the government of Mexico is currently undecided on their methodology of how they may be selling carbon from trees. In addition to the excess data in Opwall s studies, the specific Mayan species name of the trees were not previously included nor were trees recorded that had a circumferences of under 30 cm. 25

27 In the last few years of Opwall s data gathering, there has been quite a lot of information ready to go, but until there is a decision made, this data will once again get carried over and continue to be added to. An objective out of the habitat surveys and the market for selling carbon is trying to find a way to help fund local communities. It is suggested that once plots of land and trees holding carbon are divided, the local people will be employed and educated on how and what to do sustainably with their designated plots of land. Figure 29: Mayan structure within the jungle 26

28 6.0 Conclusion Mayan Jungle Biodiversity University students getting an education through various degrees showcase the next leaders of our world. Will they head in the direction of development, natural resource extraction or marketing? Or will they be hydrologists, environmental lawyers or wildlife managers, a face for the future of conservation. All professions involve an array of skills to fulfill the tasks at hand. Operation Wallacea has provided opportunities to many students to join their program and gain field research skills in remote locations around the world. Opwall provided knowledge of the tropical forest, exposing students and motivating them to be involved in wildlife conservation. The practical skills I learnt in Mexico such as animal identification, animal capturing, mist netting, pitfall traps, forest structure assessments, and much more, will all assist me in other conservation projects I am apart of leading into my future career path. The personal experience I took away from this expedition surpasses my expectations in the best way possible. Never have I been pushed to my extreme limits hiking up hills in a constant sweat, in over 30 degrees in long sleeve shirts, pants and socks. Residing in the middle of the jungle involved waking up with the birds and going to sleep with the sounds of the insects. From roughing it up in tents among no other humans, to using a bucket of water to shower, but all while contributing to important animal conservation in Mexico. From catching and learning about many species of birds, bats, frogs and reptiles, to observing monkeys playing around in the upper canopies, to even measuring trees upon trees to gather carbon biomass, and while only getting a little jungle crazy a few times. It was an exhilarating wildlife research adventure and I wouldn't trade my 3 weeks spent in the jungle for the world. Figure 30: Stargazing while bat surveying 27