Guyana Schools Booklet 2015 NAME: SCHOOL:

Transcription

1 NAME: SCHOOL: 1

2 Contents 1. Study area and research objectives Itinerary Lectures Field camp based week daytime surveys Field camp based week nocturnal surveys Boat based surveys Learning objectives Links to A levels, Scottish Highers, AP and IB Reading and research questions.18 Appendix A: Strategy for minimising disturbance on transects 20 Appendix B: Habitat survey detailed methods...21 Operation Wallacea

3 1. Study area and research objectives The Amazon rainforest represents the largest rainforest on Earth, and encompasses seven million km 2 across nine South American countries (Brazil, Peru, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia, Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana). Amazonian biodiversity is reportedly higher than anywhere else in the world and contains approximately 2.5 million insect species, 40,000 plant species, 3,000 fish species, 1,294 bird species, 427 mammal species, and 807 species of herpetofauna (reptiles and amphibians). The Iwokrama Forest (Figure 1 & 2) in central Guyana is 3710 km 2 of low-lying terra firme neotropical rainforest that is of global importance to biodiversity conservation, and carbon storage.the Forest is situated at the frontier of the Amazon and Guiana Shield eco-regions. Due to this location, the fauna of the area represents a transition point for species from both regions, and is therefore gifted with vast biodiversity. Iwokrama is home to more than 130 species of mammals, over 500 species of birds, ~150 species of reptiles and amphibians and more than 420 species of fish. The remarkably rich bat (86 species) and fish diversity, is possibly the highest for an area of its size anywhere in the world. Approximately 30% of this diversity is classified as rare and endangered. These include some of the world s largest and most majestic rainforest species, including the Arapaima (Arapaima gigas), Black Caiman (Melanosuchus niger), Giant Anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla), Giant River Otter (Pteronura brasiliensis), Anaconda (Eunectes murinus), Bush Master (Lachesis muta), Cabybara (Hydrochaeris hydrochaeris), Harpy Eagle (Harpia harpyja), and Jaguar (Panthera onca). The Iwokrama International Centre for Rainforest Conservation and Development (IIC) forms an international partnership between Guyana and the Commonwealth, to demonstrate how tropical forests can be sustainably used in the interest of global scale climate change, local communities, and biodiversity conservation. The IIC manage the Iwokrama Forest with the mission: To promote the conservation and sustainable and equitable use of tropical rainforest in a manner that leads to lasting ecological, economic and social benefits to the people of Guyana and to the world in general, by undertaking research, training and development and dissemination of technologies. The Iwokrama Forest is divided into roughly half Sustainable Utilization Area (SUA), where sustainable use of forest resources are permitted and tested, and half Wilderness Preserve (WP), where there is no commercial extraction of forest resources. An annual monitoring programme is being run by Operation Wallacea on behalf of IIC at 5 sites within the Iwokrama forests comprising samples from both Wilderness Peserve and Sustainable Use Areas. In addition the programme includes two sites outside the Iwokrama forest area (Rock Landing and Surama) to act as controls against which changes in the Iwokrama forests can be measured and also to provide additions to the species list for the area. Four of the survey sites within Iwokrama have now been monitored using the same techniques for most taxa for the last 3 years and over time this annual monitoring will enable trends in abundance (and to some extent diversity) of these taxa to be determined. In 2015 additional methods are being added to the standard surveys (more intensive camera trapping, soundscape analysis for birds and amphibians) to provide additional independently verifiable data sets. The data from these sites are being used to understand changes in the Iwokrama and Surama forests in relation to anthropogenic impacts, climate change and climate fluctuations (in particular El Niño Southern Oscillation patterns), and also the effectiveness of management interventions. Operation Wallacea

4 One of the most exciting developments at Iwokrama is the use of Reduced Impact Logging (RIL) as a method of sustainably managing the forests to ensure the local communities are gaining a significant financial benefit from maintaining the forests whilst at the same time protecting the biodiversity. Successful implementation of a scheme such as this where these objectives could be combined has potential benefits well outside Iwokrama since completely protecting forests in conservation areas can only ever protect a small proportion of forests worldwide. One of the survey sites in Iwokrama has 3 transects within areas of forest that were logged within the last couple of years using the RIL protocols which ensure that only 1% of any trees within an area (approximately 5% of the total basal area) are removed. Other sample sites within the SUA have transects that cover areas that are scheduled to be logged using the RIL protocol in future years. The diversity and abundance data from these sample sites will help identify the impacts on biodiversity of the RIL protocol. The objective is to determine whether the RIL protocol is a significant improvement in biodiversity protection over the wasteful and expensive clear felling that is practised in so many logging concessions. In addition Guyana is a signatory to the Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) mechanism where payments from international governments are made to Guyana in order to protect the carbon stocks, maintain biodiversity and provide financial benefits to local communities from adjacent forests. The biodiversity data collected by the Opwall programme from the areas outside the protected Iwokrama forests can be used to help the local comunities lever funds under this mechanism. Notes the work being done on the development of the biodiversity monitoring protocols used by the Opwall teams wil have applicability elsewhere in Guyana. Figure 1. Habitat types in the Iwokrama Forest. Operation Wallacea

5 Turtle Mountain Iwokrama Research Centre Sandstone Canopy Walkway Kabocalli Rock Landing Surama Figure 2. Survey sites (black), and other logistical sites (white). White lines indicate the two river transects along the Burro-Burro River. Red line shows the boundary of the Iwokrama Forest. 2. Itinerary The group will need to be in Georgetown to overnight on the Monday evening and will be met by representatives from the Iwokrama office in Georgetown on that evening. On the Tuesday morning the group will be transferred by bus to Iwokrama and will arrive late afternoon on the Tuesday at the Iwokrama River Lodge and Research Centre (IRL) which is on the banks of the Essequibo River. The students will spend the first three days completing lectures designed to brief them on the ecology, survey techniques and some of the species likely to be encountered over the remainder of the expedition. In addition to the lectures there are two afternoon practical sessions where the students will be divided into groups to practice the survey techniques including forest structure surveys, soundscape analysis, Point counts for birds, Distance based sampling for large mammals and intensive searched transects for herpetofauna. At the Research Centre the students will be based in dorm accommodation with flush toilets, hot showers and also a lecture room overlooking the Essequibo river. For the next week the students will be working from a forest camp. Accommodation in the camp will be in hammocks in an open sided building and will be using field toilets and showers. At each camp three transects each 4km long have been constructed and the surveys will take place on these transects. In order to minimise disturbance on the transects the large mammal and Operation Wallacea

6 bird teams will be the first along each transect. The herpetofauna search transects will only be completed along the first km of each of the transects and this area will also be used for the bird and bat mist nets and the dung beetle traps. The forest structure surveys will be completed after each of the transects have been surveyed twice by either the large mammal or the bird team. At the forest camp the students be split into smaller groups and will rotate between five research teams completing a day with each one: forest structure, large mammals and game birds (from Distance based transects and camera trap analysis), birds (from mist netting, point counts and soundscape analysis) reptile and amphibians (from diurnal and nocturnal searches and analysis of soundscape recordings for amphibians) dung beetle surveys (from pitfall trapping and sorting of samples) There are a lot of samples to be completed over the week on a tight timescale, so the students will be expected to be working with the survey teams all day and to lend a hand wherever necessary. In the evening there will be the opportunity to participate in mist netting for the bat communities. At the end of the five days surveying in the forest camp the school will be taken to Surama Village where they will join a boat based survey of the Burro Burro river with three nights camping out on the river. The boat based surveys are to provide data on the water bird communities, arapaima and giant river otters on the river. On the Sunday evening the team will be back at Surama village for a close out session on the achievements and sightings over the 2 weeks. On the Monday the group will be transferred back to Georgetown by bus arriving on the Monday evening. Table 1. Indicative timetable. Note there may be changes depending on the total number of student in a weeks, fitness levels, weather conditions, etc. Time Tues pm Tues pm Wed am Wed pm Wed pm Wed night Thursday am Thursday am Thursday pm Thursday pm Activity Health and safety briefing Presentation: What is Iwokrama? Lecture 1: Introduction to Amazon and the importance of the expedition research, including carbon assessments for REDD+ and the Reduced Impact Logging scheme Lecture 2: Survey method descriptions Practical session 1 on survey methods: forest structure surveys and soundscape analysis or Point counts for birds, Distance based sampling for large mammals, intensive searched transects for herpetofauna Documentary Film: Lost land of the Jaguar or BBC film on rainforest. Lecture 3:Diversity and adaptations of Amazonian amphibians, reptiles and birds Lecture 4: The Bats of Iwokrama an extraordinary example of adaptation. Lecture 5: The large mammals of Iwokrama: Practical session 2 on survey methods: forest structure surveys and soundscape analysis or Point counts for birds, Distance based sampling for large mammals, intensive searched transects for herpetofauna Operation Wallacea

7 Thursday pm Friday Friday pm Saturday Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday Monday Lecture 6: Conservation Synthesis: wildlife monitoring andthe conservation of Amazonia forests Travel to field camp and set up camp Bat mist netting and amphibaian spotlight surveys Survey work on one of the forest structure, hereptofauna, bird, dung beetle or large mammal teams Survey work on one of the forest structure, hereptofauna, bird, dung beetle or large mammal teams Survey work on one of the forest structure, hereptofauna, bird, dung beetle or large mammal teams Survey work on one of the forest structure, hereptofauna, bird, dung beetle or large mammal teams Survey work on one of the forest structure, hereptofauna, bird, dung beetle or large mammal teams Close camp and move to Surama. Boat based survey on Burro Burro river Burro-Burro River surveys Burro-Burro River surveys Arrive back at Surama and close out session to summarise progress and achievements over the 2 weeks Travel to Georgetown 3. Lectures Health and Safety brief: to be given to all new-comers at each camp. Lecture 1 Introduction to Amazon and the importance of the expedition research, including carbon assessments for REDD+ An introduction to the habitats and biodiversity of the Amazon region. Students will learn about the meaning of Biodiversity and how this applies to the Guiana shield. They will also hear about the potential threats to wildlife and the aims of the scientific work they will be involved in. Definition of biodiversity Worldwide biodiversity hotspots and importance of the Guiana Shield Formation of the Guiana Shield Development in Guyana potential threats and the need for sustainable development. El Niño Carbon assessments and the importance of REDD+ in Guyana Iwokrama s approach to conservation The Reduced impact Logging concept Description of the work being conducted and how it contributes to the overall research programme. Discussion topic/activity Discussion on the word biodiversity. key words Biodiversity; conservation; management; sustainability; threats; ecosystems Operation Wallacea

8 Lecture 2 Survey methods An introduction into survey methods which will be followed by a number of practical sessions. Using quadrat samples to quantify the age structure, level of disturbance and carbon levels of forests Pitfall traps for catching dung beetles Standard search diurnal and nocturnal transects for amphibians and reptiles Soundscape analysis for bird and amphibian communities Bird point counts Mist netting and banding for bird survey work Using camera traps to estimate populations of species where individuals can be identified Camera trap surveys using Randomised Encounter Models DISTANCE sampling for large mammals and game birds Mist netting and sound recording for bat surveys Discussion topic/activity In groups the students will look through a number of different ways of doing a specific survey and decide which one would be most appropriate Key words Practical work; Field techniques; Ecological sampling; Random sampling; Transects; Biodiversity indexes; Data handling; Quadrats; Measuring Lecture 3 Taxonomy and evolution, sytematics and its practical use in conservation fieldwork usingneotropical birds, reptiles and amphibians as examples. This lecture looks at taxonomy and classification and its role in field conservation. It use neotropical birds, amphibians and reptiles as examples of classification. Classification systems and why they are important Birds: Herons, egrets, terns and ducks Large game birds tinamous, guans Vultures hawks and eagles Macaws and parrots Trogons and kingfishers Toucans, antbirds and manakins Amphibians Treefrogs Poison dart frogs Chytrid fungus Reptiles Snakes Caiman Turtles Discussion topic/activity ID quiz for common species using photos. Keywords Classification; Taxonomy; Binomial system; Dichotomous Keys; invasive species Operation Wallacea

9 Lecture 4 The Bats of Iwokrama an extraordinary example of adaptation. In this lecture the bats of Iwokrama will act as an extraordinary example of adaptation. It will also focus on the classification and diversity of bat species. The concept of adaptation Phylostimid bats Bat diversity in the Iworkama Forest Identifying the common families and species Discussion topic/activity In groups the students will look through a number of different photographs of species found in Iwokrama and suggest how they are adapted for survival. Keywords Adaptation; classification; habitat; niche Lecture 5 The large mammals of Iwokrama: Primate species Anteaters, sloths and armadillos Peccaries and deer Cats Otters Discussion topic/activity ID quiz for common species using photos. Lecture 6 Conservation Synthesis: wildlife monitoring and the conservation of Guiana forests: This final lecture looks at how data collected in the Guiana Shield and Amazon can be used to see patterns and trends in biodiversity and its subsequent use in conservation management. It also considers the effects of climate change on this vulnerable ecosystem. The meaning of the word conservation How conservation works The importance of monitoring for conservation projects Human disturbance and conservation Community based conservation and wildlife monitoring Protected area conservation and wildlife monitoring The threat of the chytrid fungus to frogs will be briefly considered. Climate change and wildlife monitoring Discussion topic/activity Which is better: in-situ or ex-situ conservation? Key words Conservation; management; human effects; climate change; invasive species 4. Field camp based week daytime surveys Survey design At each of the camps three transects each 4km in length radiating out at 90 degree angles from each other will be installed. Because of the terrain it is sometimes impossible to install transects exactly at 90 degree angles but the principle is to have them as far away from each other as possible. Once they are more than 500m apart them they are independent sites for birds and Operation Wallacea

10 most other taxa. Appendix A shows how the usage of the transects is organised so as to minimise disturbance. Team 1: Forest structure survey team Habitat surveys will be conducted in 20m x 20m survey sites at 1km and 2km along each of the three transects to investigate tree diversity and basal area, forest structure and to estimate carbon tonnage within the reserve. The number of saplings (trees with circumference <15cm and a minimum height of 3 metres) will be counted for each plot. For each tree in the plot with a circumference >15 the species and DBH of the tree and whether the tree is alive or dead will be recorded on datasheets. For each tree with a circumference >30cm, height of the tree will also be recorded on datasheets. Where species cannot be identified in the field, photographs of leaves, fruit (if available) leaves and bark will be taken for later identification from textbooks. If identification is not possible from photographs, then samples may be taken from the tree at a later date for full examination. DBH will be measured using 50m tape measures and tree height will be calculated using SUUNTO clinometers (tree height can be estimated based on the distance of the observer from the base of the tree and the angle from the observer to the top of the tree). Estimates of carbon tonnage should include both live and dead trees, in addition to fallen dead wood. Consequently, the DBH, species and length of each fallen tree within the plot should also be recorded. Forest structure measurements include understorey vegetation, canopy cover and leaf litter depth. To measure understorey vegetation, the plot will be bisected to produce the four quadrants. A 3m pole marked in 0.5m segments will be used to record the number of vegetation touches on the pole in each 0.5m segment up to a maximum of 10 touches, every 1m along these bisecting tapes. If one of the positions coincides with a tree then each of the 0.5m segments will be recorded and having vegetation touches. The openness of the canopy will be measured by taking a reading with a canopy scope (Hale & Brown, 2005) facing the largest opening in the canopy from the centre of each of the four quadrants and one from the centre of the overall 20m X 20m square. If any of these points is closer than 1m to a tree trunk, then the observation point should be moved slightly so that it is at least 1m from the nearest tree trunk. The perspex square has 25 dots engraved on the square. The observer should look upwards holding the square 20cm from the eye count the number of dots that coincide with gaps in the canopy to give a score out of 25. Leaf litter depth should also be recorded in each of the 4 quadrants and in the centre of the plot using a ruler to give 5 separate leaf litter measurements (mm) per plot. A more detailed description of the habitat survey methods is located in Appendix B. Team 2: Bird point coint and soundscape analysis team Bird data will be collected using point counts and mist netting. The point count surveys will be completed between 05:00am and 09:00am. If it is raining heavily or there are strong winds the survey will be cancelled. On all surveys the weather conditions at the time of the point count will be recorded. Point counts of birds (by sight or call) will be conducted at 10 different points along Operation Wallacea

11 the transect a 500m intervals. A 1minute settling down period should be allowed with counts starting immediately therafter. Then over the next 10 minutes for each species the following details should be recorded: species, number of individuals, whether the bird(s) was seen or heard, and the approximate distance of the bird from the observer (recorded at 5m intervals). Bird species will be identified using field guides (Restell, Rodner, Lentino, 2006). On the first day at a camp though the bird team will be involved in setting up 6 X SM3 songmeter sound recording devices which will be placed at 1km and 2km along each of the three transects instead of completing the point counts. In the afternoon after point count work has been finished then the bird team will be helping an expert in analysis of the bird calls recorded either from the transects being surveyed that week or from previous transects. Call analysis will be completed on all songmeter recordings from dawn to +1 hour and for the last hour of daylight each day. The recorded calls will be compared to a library of calls that will be available on site. Team 3 Bird mist net and banding surveys Birds have been monitored using standardised mist net surveys since 2011 at 5 of the sampling sites under the auspices of Operation Wallacea s vertebrate monitoring program in Iwokrama and Surama. The surveys have involved using 18 X 12m mist nets set in a pattern as shown in the diagram below. The nets are opened at 0600hrs and closed at 1800hrs unless there is rain when the nets are much less effective and are closed. Mist nets are unable to sample canopy and midcanopy species adequately, but do allow for quantitatively reliable data to be produced for tropical understory birds, allowing for the identification of birds that are shy or seldom vocal, minimises observer bias, and produces results that are easily repeatable. The surveys have generated a wealth of data on understory bird diversity and enabled assessments of how the relative abundance of certain species at those sites is changing over time. The opening and closing time of the nets are recorded each session and nets checked every 20 minutes for the duration of the survey. When birds are found in the net, the time of capture is noted. The birds are taken out of the net, placed in a cotton bag for holding whilst other birds are being processed. In 2014 a bird-banding programme to augment the existing mist-net surveys in Iwokrama and Surama was initiated and this will be continued in Bird-banding consists of fixing a lightweight, numbered aluminium ring to a bird s leg to enable the identification of that individual upon recapture, for the duration of the individual s life. Banding is a long-established technique that has generated a huge volume of information on life spans, population dynamics, and movements of birds. However, there is a relative lack of data from long-term studies in the Amazonian lowland region, and the Operation Wallacea program seeks to fill that gap. The weight, wing length, molt and breeding condition, presence of abnormalities, and approximate age if known are recorded for all captured birds. Birds will be photographed and released close to the net site but far enough away to avoid them being immediately re-trapped. Operation Wallacea

12 Team 5: Amphibian and reptile team Herpetofauna data will be collected using active searching along each forest transect between 9.30am-1pm (to monitor diurnal species). Searches will be conducted along the transect line and up to 10m either side of the transect line. The duration of the survey and total distance travelled will be recorded for each survey in order to calculate relative abundance of species that incorporates survey effort. For each animal observed the species will be identified using field guides, the GPS location and distance travelled along the transect will be recorded along with the time, weather conditions and habitat type. Wherever possible, the animal will be captured to record additional information before releasing the animal in the same location as capture. For each animal captured the sex, age (adult or juvenile), weight (g), the length of the animal (SVL), length of the head, and length of tail (where relevant) and colouration (camouflage or aposematic) will be recorded. In addition the animal will be photographed in situ (back, head and side). Additional data will be collected using pitfall traps and drift fences. The traps will placed in two locations per camp and arranged in a Y shape consisting of 5 buckets buried flush with the ground surface and a fence of mosquito netting to connect the buckets. These pitfall traps will be used to collect data on fossorial species that are difficult to observe during transect surveys. The traps will be left in situ for the week at the camp and will be checked for captures each morning. For each captured, the sex, age (adult or juvenile), weight (g), the length of the animal (SVL), length of the head, and length of tail (were relevant) and colouration (camouflage or aposematic) will be recorded. In addition the animal will be photographed in situ (back, head and side). The standard searches and emptying of the pitlines traps will be completed in the morning. In the afternoon this team will be helping an experienced herpetologist to analyse the sound recordings from the 6 SM3 songmeters that have been installed on the transects (see bird point count and soundscape analysis team). Each sound recording will be analysed for a 2 hour period during the night and amphibian calls compared to a sound library of calls on site. Team 6: Dung beetle team A total of 10 baited pitfall traps will be placed every 150m along each of the three transects and checked daily to record and assess dung beetle diversity. Traps are buried in the ground so that the lip is flush with the soil surface. The cups that make up the trap are 4-5 inches in diameter, and two cups are placed one inside the other to form a single trap, to make emptying traps easier. Cups will be ¾ filled with killing fluid mixture (propylene glycol, water, detergent). A plate will be placed over the trap opening, supported by twigs, to protect from rain. Bait will be suspended slightly above the trap, with no part of the bait touching the side of the cup. Bait should be formed from approx 25g of fresh horse or mule dung, wrapped in muslin or similar fabric and tied to form a ball. Excess string from tying can be used to hang the bait. Especially fresh dung should be squeezed of excess water before bait-making. Dung should be no more than hours old. Operation Wallacea

13 Traps will be emptied by pouring through a fine strainer into another cup. Killing fluid may need to be returned to the trap and further pourings carried out to ensure all of the contents of the trap are collected. Some scarabs are less than 5mm in length, so care should be taken to ensure everything is collected - stubborn specimens can be collected using a fine brush or with a gentle stream of water. The strainer should then be carefully emptied into a suitably labelled Whirl-Pak bag, as above. Killing fluid should generally be re-used, although if it has been excessively diluted by rain water or contaminated by rotting individuals, it should be discarded and replaced with fresh. The dung beetle team will empty each of the traps each morning and refresh the dung every 2 days. Once returned to camp, the samples should be rinsed in water and the samples sorted in white trays and using hand lenses to at least family level with the help of an supervising expert. The beetles sorted to family will then be put in small plastic vials and covered with 75% ethanol. The vials will then be placed back inside the ziplock bag for each sample site. Note samples from the 5 days the traps will be running at each site can be combined into the same vials for that sample site. Team 7: Large mammal and game bird team Large terrestrial mammals and game birds will be surveyed along the three line transects at each site with each transetc being surveyed twice throughout the week long survey. Target species are selected based on the likelihood of obtaining robust population density estimates using line transect sampling, and to provide a representative profile of species across dietary guilds. Closely related congeners of a few of these species, which cannot be reliably identified in the field by less experienced observers (e.g. the tinamous and the parrots), will be pooled together into single functional groups. Other large mammal species encountered will also be recorded however. Primary target species for morning transect walks. Some represent species groups where individual species recognition is unreliable in the field. Taxa & Species Primates Black Spider Monkey Red Howler Monkey Wedge-capped capuchin White-faced Saki Scientific name Ateles paniscus Alouatta macconnelli Cebus olivaceus Pithecia pithecia Rodents Red-rumped Agouti Dasyprocta leporina Operation Wallacea

14 Ungulates Red-brocket and Grey-brocket deer White-lipped and collared Peccary Mazama americana, gouazoubira Tayassu pecari, tajucu Birds Macaws Parrots Parakeets Toucans Tinamous Grey-winged trumpeter Black Currosow (Powis) Guans Red-throated Caracara Ara spp. Amazona spp.; Pionites melanocephalus; Pionopsitta caica; Deroptyus accipitrinus; Pionus fuscus; menstruus Pyrrhura picta; Brotogeris chrysoptera Ramphastos tucanus, vitellinus Tinamus major; Crypturellus variegatus Phsopia crepitans Crax alector Penelope marial, jacquacu Ibycter americanus The target species will be surveyed using distance sampling (Buckland et al., 2001) as they are conspicuous and the particular species present in the reserve do not shy away from observers. These data will be collected by walking the entire length of the transect line in small groups of observers walking quietly and slowly (500-1,000 m/hr) starting at 6.30am, when the target species are most active and are easiest to detect. Each time one of the target species is encountered, the species, whether the animals was seen or heard, number of individuals (visual sightings only), perpendicular distance from the individual to the transect line, habitat, time, distance travelled along the transect line and weather conditions will be recorded. The distance sampling method is only suitable when animals are relatively easy to detect and is therefore unsuitable for monitoring elusive species or species that naturally live at low densities such as jaguar. Two additional methods will be used to monitor these species. One of these techniques known as patch occupancy sampling (Mackenzie, 2005) involves detecting animals based on tracks and faeces rather that visual or vocal sightings of the animals. These data will be collected at the same time as the Distance surveys. For each track encountered the following data will be recorded: species, length and width of track, approximate age of track (days) and leaf litter depth. The method and theories behind distance and patch occupancy sampling will be explained to students and they will be taught how to recognise different species and the main identification features will be explained. Identification sheets will be available. The field survey transetcs will be completed in the morning and during the afternoon the large mammal and game bird team will be helping with analysis of camera trap images. 5. Forest camp nocturnal surveys After dark there will be two survey teams operating the students on site will have the opportunity to join both of these times once during the week. Operation Wallacea

15 Bat mist net surveys 18 X 12 metre mist nets placed in pairs at each of the 9 positions in the grid format, shown in the figure above will be opened at 1800hrs and closed at 00:00hrs each night for 6 nights. As data collection may be affected by rain, the exact opening and closing time of the nets will be recorded each session. The nets will be checked every 15 to 20 minutes during the first 3 hours of sampling and every 30 minutes for the last three. All the bats will be extracted from the nets following standardized protocols so as to minimize the stress and will be kept in a capture bags. This time will vary depending on the size of the bat and the sex; pregnant females will be measured and released. Bats will be weighed, sexed, and species, reproductive status, the length of the forearm, feet and leg will be measured. Bat species will be identified using relevant field guides although most are from just one family, Phyllostomidae. Spotlighting surveys for amphibians Night time spotlight and acoustic encounter surveys will be completed on each of the transects over the course of the week from 18:00-23:00hrs. These data will be used to supplement the diurnal search transects, pitfall traps and the soundscape analysis. 6. Boat based surveys The last 3 days are spent working in small boats along the Burro Burro river and completing transects surveys of the river to record the species below: Table 7.1. Burro-Burro River mammal, reptile and fish target species Taxa & Species Mammals Giant river otter Neotropical river otter Scientific name Pteronura brasiliensis Lontra longicaudis Reptiles Anaconda Giant river turtle Yellow-spotted river turtle Black Caiman Spectacled caiman Schneider s dwarf caiman Cuvier s dwarf caiman Eunectes marinus Podocnemis expansa Podocnemis unifilis Melanosuchus niger Caiman crocodilus Paleosuchus trigonatus Paleosuchus palpebrosus Operation Wallacea

16 Fish Arapaima Arapaima gigas 7. Learning objectives By the end of the expeditions the students should be competent to do the following: To describe survey methods and their disadvantages for a range of river and forest taxa Be able to identify 10 species of bird Be able to identify 10 species of reptile or amphibian Be able to identify 10 species of mammals found in the forests To describe how reduced impact logging could contribute to ensuring forests are managed sustainably 8. Links to A levels, Scottish Highers, AP and IB The following two tables highlight how your Opwall expedition relates to A levels (all exam boards), Scottish Highers, AP and IB syllabuses for biology, geography and environmental science. Topic Biology AQA C CCEA C.Int Ed/Sal OCR SQA WJEC AP IB Levels: S=AS 2=A2 H =Highers S 2 S 2 S 2 S 2 S 2 H A H S 2 Evolution, Classificatio n and DNA Ecology and Ecosystems Evolution; Speciation; Species; Endemism; Gene pool; Allopatric; Sympatric; Isolation; Variation; Adaptive radiation Adaptation; Wallace; Darwin Classification; Taxonomy; Binomial system; Dichotomous Keys PCR; Genome sequencing; Genetic fingerprinting; DNA profile Ecology; Habitat; Niche; Abiotic; Biotic Biome; Ecosystems; Rainforests; Deserts; Coral reefs; Mangroves; Marine; Coasts; Hot arid; Semi-arid; Woodland Bush; Tropics; Tropical Populations; Competition; Interspecific; Intraspecific; Predator Prey; density dependent; independent: Symbiosis Succession; Climax community Biodiversity Practical work; Field techniques; Ecological sampling; Random sampling; Transects; Capture, mark, release and recapture; Biodiversity indexes; Data handling and; presentation; Quadrats; Statistical testing; Measuring; GIS; Operation Wallacea

17 Agriculture, Human activities, Conservatio n and Sustainabilit y Behaviour Research tools Written reports; Research project; Report; Case studies Sustainability Agriculture; Agricultural impact; Agricultural exploitation; Cultivation crops; Food production; Sustainable agriculture; Sustainability; Forestry; Timber; Deforestation; Fisheries; Over fishing; Deforestation; Human management; Human effects; Human activities Fair-Trade; Coffee; Rain Forest Alliance; Ecotourism; Tourism; Carbon trading; Greenhouse gas emission control (REDD) Indicator species; Pollution; Climate change; Global warming Carbon footprint; Fossil fuels International conservation; Endangered species; Invasive species; Biological control; Pests; CITES; Ethical, Local; Global National Parks; Wildlife reserves Environment; Environmental monitoring; Environmental impact; SSSI Animal behaviour; Primate Social behaviour; Courtship; Territory; Cooperative hunting; Herbivores; Grazing Table: Highlighted in Black are topics that you might experience at your research site. Key: C = Cambridge. Pre-U, C.int = Camb. Int. CCEA = N.Ireland; Ed/Sal = Edexcel Salters, S= SQA ; Edex = EdExcel ; IB = International Bacc; AP=Advanced Placement (v. 20/11/14) Geography, APES and ESS IB ESS APE S AQA CCEA Edex OCR WJEC Topic Levels: S=AS 2=A2 Geography S 2 S 2 S 2 S 2 S 2 Evolution, Classificatio n and DNA Ecology and Ecosystems Evolution; Speciation; Species; Endemism; Gene pool; Allopatric; Sympatric; Isolation; Variation; Adaptive radiation Adaptation; Wallace; Darwin Classification; Taxonomy; Binomial system; Dichotomous Keys PCR; Genome sequencing; Genetic fingerprinting; DNA profile Ecology; Habitat; Niche; Abiotic; Biotic Biome; Ecosystems; Rainforests; Deserts; Coral reefs; Mangroves; Marine; Coasts; Hot arid; Semiarid; Woodland Bush; Tropics; Tropical Populations; Competition; Interspecific; Intraspecific; Predator Prey; density dependent; independent: Symbiosis Succession; Climax community Biodiversity Practical work; Field techniques; Ecological sampling; Random sampling; Transects; Capture, mark, release and recapture; Biodiversity indexes; Data handling and; presentation; Quadrats; Statistical testing; Measuring; GIS; Research tools Written reports; Research project; Report; Case studies Sustainability Agriculture; Agricultural impact; Agricultural exploitation; Cultivation crops; Food production; Sustainable agriculture; Sustainability; Forestry; Timber; Deforestation; Fisheries; Over fishing; Deforestation; Human management; Human effects; Operation Wallacea

18 Agriculture, Human activities, Conservatio n and Sustainabilit y Human activities Fair-Trade; Coffee; Rain Forest Alliance; Ecotourism; Tourism; Carbon trading; Greenhouse gas emission control (REDD) Indicator species; Pollution; Climate change; Global warming Carbon footprint; Fossil fuels International conservation; Endangered species; Invasive species; Biological control; Pests; CITES; Ethical, Local; Global National Parks; Wildlife reserves Environment; Environmental monitoring; Environmental impact; SSSI Animal behaviour; Primate Social behaviour; Behaviour Courtship; Territory; Co-operative hunting; Herbivores; Grazing Table: Highlighted in Black are topics that you might experience at your research site. Key: C = Cambridge. Pre-U, C.int = Camb. Int. CCEA = N.Ireland; Ed/Sal = Edexcel Salters, S= SQA ; Edex = EdExcel IB ESS = Env Systems and Societies; APES = Advanced Placement Env. Science (v. 20/11/14) 9. Reading and research questions Many students are now involved in producing Research Essays or Projects as part of their 2 year educational programme and many hope to carry this out whilst on an Opwall Expedition. If you are an IB school you will be involved in the EE or Extended Essay or if in the UK an EPQ or Extended Project Qualification. Those involved in CoPE will also have a similar project carrying out some research. There are many similar projects in most countries. One of the key features of all of these Essays or Projects is that you have to choose your own research question but it is often difficult to find out exactly what is happening at each Opwall research site. To help in this, we have produced a Research lookup database on the Opwall website but you can also download a more detailed version as an Excel Spreadsheet. The database lets you find out what is happening at each site and there are links to pdf files and video clips. You can search the database using a variety of filters such as research area and location. This booklet also contains detailed information on the research projects you will be involved in and this may help you to locate your particular area of interest. The type of IRP will vary but it is less suitable for individual investigations where you collect your own primary data although in some cases you might be able to get hold of raw data and you will often have the opportunity to help collect some of this data yourself. You will certainly have the opportunity on-site to meet up with the scientists involved which will allow you to get a deeper insight into your research question. Many of you will also have seen the Wallace Resource Library (WRL) which contains many datasets based around the research being carried out and it has been prepared by the actual Opwallscientists involved. It is a very valuable source of ideas with comprehensive datasets to look at and study. Demo version Operation Wallacea

19 Do also make use of the research library on the OpWall website - How does it work? Once you have an idea send an to schoolresearchprojects@opwall.com with your initial ideas and contact details so that one of the academic staff working with Opwall can contact you to discuss possible research questions. We can also send you further information to help you choose a suitable title for your research site. Once you have decided on a title you will then be asked to complete a registration form (supplied on request) which we can then forward to the appropriate country manager or scientist. This will then inform those at the research site about what you are hoping to achieve plus for us to give you as much assistance as we can. In some cases we will also be able to provide you with data sets from previous years which some students will find very useful. Deadlines: Although each school will be operating their own schedule we would like registrations to be competed at least 3 months before their expedition begins although the earlier the better. General Books for this site: Watkins G, Oxford P, Bish (2010) Rupununi: Rediscovering a Lost World. Earth in Focus Editions. Lambertini M (2000) A Naturalists Guide to the Tropics.University of Chicago Press. Kricher J (1997) A Neotropical Companion. Princeton University Press Sutherland WJ (2006) Ecological Census Techniques: A Handbook (2 nd Edition). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. A general guide book is: Smock, K. (2001). Guyana. Bradt Travel guides The best bird ID book is: Restell, Rodner, Lentino (2006) Birds of Northern South America: An Identification Guide. Helm Field Guides Link Mammal books (though not very good): Emmons, L.H., Feer, F. (1997) Neotropical Rain Forest Mammals: A Field Guide. Chicago References in text Buckland, S.T., Andersen, D.R., Burnham, K.P., Laake, J.L., Borchers, D.L., & Thomas, L. (2001). Introduction to Distance Sampling: Estimating Abundance of Biological Populations. Oxford: Oxford University Press. MacKenzie, D.I., Nicols, J. D., Royle, J.A., Pollack, K., Bailey, L., & Hines, J.E. (2006). Occupancy Estimation and Modelling: Inferring Patterns and Dynamics of Species Occurrence. London: Elsevier Publishing. Operation Wallacea

20 Day Large mammals/game birds Transect 1 full length Transect 2 full length Transect 3 full length Transect 1 full length Transect 2 full length Transect 3 full length Appendix A: Strategy for minimising impact on the transects Bird point counts Transect 3 full length Transect 1 full length Transect 2 full length Transect 3 full length Transect 1 full length Transect 2 full length Bird mist netting and banding Set up soundscape recording on all transects at 1km and 2km Mist netting and banding in first 500m of transect 3 Mist netting and banding in first 500m of transect 1 Mist netting and banding in first 500m of transect 2 Mist netting and banding in first 500m of transect 3 Mist netting and banding in first 500m of transect 1 Recover all sound recording gear Forest structure Site near bird mist netting site on transect 1 after large mammal team has passed Site near bird mist netting site on transect 2 after large mammal team has passed Site near bird mist netting site on transect 3 after large mammal team has passed Site at 2km bird point count on transect 1 after large mammal team has passed Site at 2km bird point count on transect 1 after large mammal team has passed Site at 2km bird point count on transect 1 after large mammal team has passed Dung beetle traps Set up dung beetle traps every 150m to 1km on each transect Empty dung beetle traps in transect 1 Empty dung beetle traps in transect 2 Empty dung beetle traps in transect 3 Empty dung beetle traps in transect 1 Empty and remove all dung beetle traps Daytime herpetofauna surveys Active search in first 1km of transect 1 after large mammal team has passed Active search in first 1km of transect 2 after large mammal team has passed Active search in first 1km of transect 3 after large mammal team has passed Active search in first 1km of transect 1 after large mammal team has passed Active search in first 1km of transect 2 after large mammal team has passed Active search in first 1km of transect 3 after large mammal team has passed Night time herp surveys Active search in first 1km of transect 1 Riverside search Active search in first 1km of transect 2 Riverside search Active search in first 1km of transect 3 Riverside search Operation Wallacea

21 Appendix B: Operation Wallacea Habitat Survey Methods for Estimating Forest Structure and Carbon Biomass Sample plots A sample of 42 habitat survey sites each 20m x 20m will be completed over the course of the 2015 expeditions. Within each plot, every standing tree (alive or dead), fallen trees and cut stumps over 15cm in circumference should be measured. Measurements include DBH and height (only trees with circumference >30cm: see sections below). For each tree measured, the corresponding tree species should be identified and the state of the tree (alive or dead) recorded. The number of saplings (trees with circumference <15cm, and a minimum height of 3m) should be counted, but do not need to be measured. Forest structure measurements Forest structure measurements include understorey vegetation, canopy cover and leaf litter depth. To measure understorey vegetation, the plot will be bisected order to produce the four quadrants. A 3m pole marked in 0.5m segments and record the number of vegetation touches on the pole in each 0.5m segment up to a maximum of 10 touches, every 1m along these bisecting tapes. If one of the positions coincides with a tree assume each of the 0.5m segments include vegetation. The openness of the canopy will be measured by taking a reading with a canopy scope facing the largest opening in the canopy from the centre of each of the four quadrants and one from the centre of the overall 20m X 20m square. If any of these points is closer than 1m to a tree trunk, then the observation point should be moved slightly so that it is at least 1m from the nearest tree trunk. The perspex square has 25 dots engraved on the square. The observer should look upwards holding the square 20cm from the eye count the number of dots that coincide with gaps in the canopy to give a score out of 25. Leaf litter depth should also be recorded in each of the 4 quadrants and in the centre of the plot using a ruler to give 5 separate leaf litter measurements (mm) per plot. Tree height and diameter measurements Tree (Dbh) measurement Tree diameter is measured over bark, at 1.3m breast height above the ground (see Figure 1) with the exception of particular cases mentioned below. Measurement may be carried out with the help of a diameter tape (tape whose diameter unit is in centimetres) or with the use of a calliper. In order to avoid overestimation of the volume and to compensate measurement errors, diameter is measured in cm and adjusted in a decreasing sense (example: 16.8 cm become 16 cm). Figure 1: Position for diameter measurement at breast height in flat terrain. One single dotted line indicates the place for Dbh measurement. If there are two lines on the stem because of a defective tree, the appropriate place to do the measurement is thus indicated. Figure 2: Dbh measurement position for a tree on steep terrain. Operation Wallacea

22 Fork tree: Several cases exist, according to the point where the fork divides the stem. If the fork begins (the point where the core is divided) below 1.3 m height, each stem having the diameter required ( 20 cm in the whole plot, 10 cm for rectangular subplots) will be considered as a tree and will be measured. Diameter measurement of each stem will be taken at 1.3 m height. If the fork begins between 30 cm and 1.3 m, each stem will be considered as separate tree and will be measured. The diameter measurement will be taken at 1 meter above the fork origin. If the fork begins at 1.3 m or a little higher, the tree will be counted as a single tree. The diameter measurement is thus carried out below the fork intersection point, just below the bulge that could influence the Dbh. Coppice: Coppice shoots originate between ground level and 1.3m on the stem of a dead or cut tree. These are considered in the same way as forked trees, except that the coppice shoots do not necessarily reach 1/3 diameter of a dead tree. Coppice shoots originating below 30 cm are measured at 1.3 m above the ground; those that originate between 30 cm and 1.3 m are measured at 1 meter above the originating point. Measure here Figure 3: Measurement point for trees with forks or coppice.. Trees with an enlarged stem base or buttressed tree: diameter measurement is made at 30 cm above the enlargement or main width of buttress, if the buttress/enlargement reaches more than 90 cm height above the ground (see Figure 4). Figure 4: Dbh measurement position for buttressed tree Trees with aerial roots: diameter measurement is done at 1.3m from the limit between the stem and roots (see Figure 5). Operation Wallacea

23 Figure 5: Dbh measurement position for a tree with aerial roots Trees with irregular stem at 1.3m: trees with bulges, wounds, hollows and branches, etc. at breast height, are to be measured just above the irregular point, there where the irregular shape does not affect the stem (see Figures 5 and 6). Figure 6: Dbh measurement position for a tree with branch enlargement at 1, 3m Inclined trees: diameter measurement is made at 1.3 m. The stem height is measured where the stem base and the ground meet forming an angle (see Figure 7). Figure 7: Dbh measurement position for an inclined tree. Fallen tree: diameter measurement is made at 1.3 m from the transition point between the stem and the root (see Figure 8). Figure 8: Dbh position for a fallen tree. Measurement for a living tree lying on the ground with branches in the shape of a vertical tree: When a living tree is laying on the ground and its vertical branches (at <45 vertical position) grow from the main stem, it is recommended to determine first if the main stem is above the litter or not. If this is the case, use the same rules applied to a forked tree, if the pith of the main stem is under the litter, do not take the main stem into account and treat each one of the branches in the shape of a tree, as a separate tree. Dbh may be measured (and its height too) at 1.3 m from the ground, but not from the top of the laying stem. Operation Wallacea