UNIVERSTE DE LORRAINE

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1 UNIVERSTE DE LORRAINE Implementation and Management of Information & Communication Technologies: Examining Government and Business Enterprises Mémoire de synthèse des travaux en vue de l obtention du Diplôme d Habilitation à Diriger des Recherches (HDR) en Sciences de Gestion Shirish C. SRIVASTAVA Professeur associé, HEC Paris Département Management des Opérations et des Systèmes d Information Synthèse des travaux Parrain scientifique : Christophe ELIE-DIT-COSAQUE Professeur, Université de Lorraine, ISAM-IAE Nancy MEMBERS DU JURY Coordinateur des travaux Rapporteurs Christophe ELIE-DIT-COSAQUE Professeur, Université de Lorraine, ISAM-IAE Nancy Jean-Fabrice LEBRATY Professeur des universités, Université Jean-Moulin Lyon 3, IAE Lyon School of Management Régis MEISSONIER Professeur, Université de Montpellier, IAE Montpellier Membres du jury Jessie PALLUD Professeur, EM Strasbourg Business School Michel KALIKA Professeur, Université Jean-Moulin Lyon 3, IAE Lyon School of Management Jacques THEVENOT Professeur émérite, Université de Lorraine François-Xavier DE VAUJANY Professeur, Université Paris-Dauphine Sarv DEVARAJ Professeur, Université Notre Dame, États-Unis d'amérique

2 L université n entend donner aucune approbation ni improbation aux opinions émises dans les thèses et les mémoires ; ces opinions doivent être considérées comme propres à leurs auteurs. 2 P age

3 Table of Contents Contents ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 7 RESUME 10 ABSTRACT 11 1 SYNOPSIS Bilan des activités de recherche Projet scientifique 18 2 INTRODUCTION Holistic Approach Multidisciplinary Nature Multimethod Strategy Structure of the Dissertation 26 3 RESEARCH THEMES Theme #1: Management of ICT in Public Sector and Government 28 Key Implications Theme # Theme #2: Management of ICT within Business Enterprises 38 Key Implications Theme # Theme #3: Management of Externalized ICT as Outsourcing and Offshoring 49 Key Implications Theme # FUTURE RESEARCH PERSPECTIVES Research Themes Key Implications and Future Research 58 Theme #1 Management of ICT in Public Sector and Government 58 Theme #2 Management of ICT within Business Enterprises 58 Theme #3 Management of Externalized ICT as Outsourcing and Offshoring Key Research Abstractions 60 3 P age

4 Trust theoretic models offer a unique opportunity to examine technology implementation 60 Innovation through technology is about applying a service centric approach 62 Effective technology enabled working is about managing control configurations 63 5 CONTINUING THE RESEARCH AGENDA WAY FORWARD Develop Rich Research Collaborations Pursue Fruitful Doctoral Supervision Iterate between Research and Teaching 70 6 CONCLUSION 72 7 REFERENCES 73 8 CURRICULUM VITAE 75 4 P age

5 List of Figures Figure 1. Orientations et axes de recherches Figure 2. Broad Research Orientation and Themes Figure 3. Trust and E-Government Success (Source: J11) Figure 4. E-Government Evolution Sequential Model (Source: C27) Figure 5. Complexity of E-Government Impact (Source: J24) Figure 6. Influence of E-Government on Corruption Combining Levels of Analysis (Source: J1) Figure 7. Achieving Social Entrepreneurship Objectives Telemedicine at NN & AECS (Source: J2) Figure 8. Achieving Business Objectives - RFID Implementation at YCH (Source: J8) Figure 9. Practices for Overcoming Challenges at Schlumberger (Source: J20) Figure 10. Contextualized Theory Building for VWs (Source: J7) Figure 11. Strategic Motivations for Offshoring - Low cost and Innovation (Source: C30 and C64) Figure 12. Offshore Location Decision Framework (Source: C40) Figure 13. Salience of Knowledge Management for Offshore Project Performance (Source: C15) Figure 14. Control Mechanisms acting within Different Control Modes in Offshore Relationships (Source: J6) Figure 15. E-Government Trust Grid (Source: J13) Figure 16. Goods versus Service Dominant Logic (Source: J1) Figure 17. Applying Service-centric Logic to Reconceptualize Digital Divide (Source: J1). 63 Figure 18. Control Mechanisms and their Influence on FP and T&M Contract Performance (Source: J6) Figure 19. Evolution and Contribution to Control Theory - Modes, Mechanisms and Configurations (Source: C2) P age

6 List of Tables Table 1. Theme 1: Management of ICT in Public Sector and Government Table 2. Theme 2: Management of ICT within Business Enterprises Table 3. Theme 3: Management of Externalized ICT as Outsourcing and Offshoring P age

7 Acknowledgements This Habilitation à Diriger des Recherches (HDR) dissertation has given me an opportunity to reflect upon my past 12 years of academic life. The journey, though arduous, has been a joyful experience primarily because it gave me an opportunity to do what I really wanted to do. But the difficult switch from being a professional to an academic was made easy by numerous persons who actively enriched my experience. I would like to thank each one of them for their contribution to my academic journey and this HDR dissertation. First and foremost, I sincerely thank my HDR supervisor Prof. Christophe Elie-Dit- Cosaque. It was his motivation and support that laid the foundation for my HDR. Prof. Christophe Elie-Dit-Cosaque has been a wonderful mentor who has always amazed me with his enthusiasm, energy, accessibility, promptness, and above all his compassion and patience. He helped me understand the nuanced details about writing an HDR dissertation, which I found to be distinctly different from writing a research paper or even a PhD dissertation. During my interactions with him over the past several months, I have learnt a lot. I would also like to thank Prof. Jean-Fabrice Lebraty, Prof. Régis Meissonier and Prof. Jessie Pallud for having accepted to review my work. I am also grateful to Prof. Michel Kalika, Prof. Jacques Thevenot, Prof. François-Xavier de Vaujany and Prof. Sarv Devaraj for having agreed to serve as jury members on my HDR dissertation committee. I would also record my gratitude to the University of Lorraine and the CEREFIGE research laboratory for allowing me to register for HDR and helping me pursue my academic objectives. I would also like to record my appreciation for the continuous support and guidance that I received from Prof. Marie-Helene Delmond, which has helped me understand the academic environment in France and how I can contribute to it. The encouraging atmosphere in my school, HEC Paris, has also been instrumental in providing me the necessary opportunities to further my research and teaching interests. I also wish to thank my colleagues at HEC who were readily available for making my academic tasks easier. My journey would not have been a wonderful experience but for the amazing set of research collaborators that I have, especially, Prof. Thompson Teo and Prof. Shalini Chandra. They acted as my sounding boards and patient listeners to my academic frustrations (and accomplishments). 7 P age

8 I am very fortunate to have continuous support from my wife Anuragini and my two beautiful daughters Anisha and Arshiyaa, who provided me the necessary strength to pursue my academic interests. I would also like to record my thanks to my loving parents, Prof. S.C. Srivastava and Mrs. Padma Srivastava, for being a constant source of strength. Being academicians themselves, they could empathize with me and guide me through tough times. Finally, I would like to thank my life teacher and guide Shri. Kamlesh D. Patel for being a constant source of help, support and guidance. Shirish Chandra SRIVASTAVA 9 th May P age

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10 Résumé Ce mémoire d HDR synthétise notre travail sur la compréhension de la mise en œuvre et la gestion des technologies de l'information et de la communication (TIC) au sein des organisations publiques et gouvernementales et des entreprises. Le travail s articule autour de trois grands thèmes à savoir - (1) La gestion des TIC dans le secteur public et les organisations gouvernementales, (2) la gestion des TIC dans les entreprises commerciales, et (3) la gestion des externalisations des TIC comme l outsourcing et l offshoring. Chacun de ces thèmes de notre programme de recherche a évolué au fil du temps, en s intéressant d abord à des implémentations informatiques simples, puis à des implémentations plus complexes - axées sur l implémentation de TIC innovantes. Notre recherche, qui suit une approche holistique, multidisciplinaire et multi méthode, est caractérisée par un accent mis sur la construction contextualisée de la théorie. Le mémoire discute des implications de notre travail et met en exergue trois abstractions qui offrent une vue synthétisée du travail accompli jusqu'à présent. Ces abstractions participent également à tracer des lignes directrices pour des recherches futures dans la discipline. Ces trois abstractions soulignent le fait que (1) les modèles théoriques de la confiance offrent une occasion unique d'examiner la mise en œuvre de la technologie, (2) l'innovation grâce à la technologie appelle à la mise en œuvre d approches centrées sur le service, et que (3) le travail qui s appuie sur la technologie gagne en efficacité lorsque les configurations de contrôle sont gérées efficacement. Notre travail met en exergue plusieurs approches théoriques et méthodologiques qui peuvent aider dans la perspective de l accompagnement de projets de recherche doctorale. 10 P age

11 Abstract This dissertation synthesizes our work on understanding the implementation and management of information and communication technologies (ICTs) in government and business enterprises. The work can be described under three broad themes namely - (1) Management of ICT in Public Sector and Government, (2) Management of ICT within Business Enterprises, and (3) Management of Externalized ICT as outsourcing and offshoring. But in each of these themes the research agenda has been evolving over time from simple ICT implementations to more complex -- innovation oriented ICT implementations. Our research that follows a holistic - multimethod multidisciplinary approach, is characterized by an emphasis on contextualized theory building. In addition to the implications, the dissertation also provides three abstractions that offer a synthesized view of the work done so far and can also help chart future research in the discipline. These three abstractions are (1) Trust-theoretic models offer a unique opportunity to examine technology implementation, (2) Innovation through technology is about applying a service-centric approach, and (3) Effective technology enabled working is about managing control configurations. Our work generates several theoretical and methodological insights that can help further future doctoral research projects. 11 P age

12 1 Synopsis 1.1 Bilan des activités de recherche Dans la discipline des Sciences de gestion, nos travaux s inscrivent dans la spécialité du Management des systèmes d information. Le thème central de nos travaux porte sur les déterminants et impacts des technologies de l information et de la communication (TIC) au sein des organisations. Orientations et axes de recherche La Figure 1 ci-dessous présente l'orientation générale de nos recherches et leur évolution dans le temps, ainsi que les axes de recherche autour desquels nos travaux s articulent. D une façon générale, nous cherchons à mieux comprendre l implantation et les impacts des technologies de l'information et de la communication (TIC). Les travaux que nous avons réalisés dans cette thématique ont évolué dans le temps. Aujourd hui, nous nous concentrons en particulier sur l innovation lors de la mise en œuvre de la technologie qu il s agisse de nouvelles technologies innovantes telles que les mondes virtuels, les technologies de puces à radiofréquence (RFID) ou d utilisation innovante de technologies existantes pour servir de nouveaux groupes d'utilisateurs, par exemple des communautés rurales de pays en développement, utilisatrices de services de télémédecine. Cette évolution de notre orientation est représentée sur la Figure 1 ci-dessous, par les flèches qui décrivent le mouvement de nos recherches à partir de 2003 jusqu'en 2016 et au-delà. Nos recherches s organisent ainsi autour de trois axes que nous décrivons ci-après, soit (1) le management des TIC dans l administration publique et les institutions gouvernementales, (2) le management des TIC dans les entreprises, (3) le management des TIC externalisées en outsourcing et offshoring. Notre premier axe de recherche analyse des problématiques qui touchent au management des TIC dans des contextes d e-gouvernement et du secteur public. Il diffère du deuxième axe qui porte sur des questions liées aux TIC dans des entreprises commerciales. Ces deux premiers axes s appuient en partie sur les mêmes cadres théoriques. Toutefois, le contexte des institutions gouvernementales / du secteur public est très différent de celui des entreprises ; ces spécificités contextuelles sont prises en compte et étudiées dans les travaux que nous réalisons dans ces deux axes. Ainsi, dans une recherche récente, nous nous appuyons sur une 12 P age

13 approche de théorisation fondée sur le contexte afin de mieux comprendre ces spécificités (R2 1 ).. Implantation et impact des TIC Axe I Management des TIC dans l administration publique et les institutions gouvernementales Axe III Axe II Management des TIC dans les entreprises Management des TIC externalisées en outsourcing et offshoring Innovation prenant appui sur les TIC Figure 1. Orientations et axes de recherches Le troisième axe de recherche porte sur la gestion de technologies externalisés par les organisations (dans des contextes de e-gouvernement et d entreprises) et contribue aux recherches sur l outsourcing et l offshoring. Plusieurs approches méthodologiques sont mobilisées en vue de la réalisation de nos travaux de recherche, notamment les enquêtes (e.g., J3, J6, J7, J9, J11, R1, R2, R3, etc.), l analyse de données d archives (e.g., J1, J10, J14, J15, J17, J23, R4, etc.), les études de cas (e.g., J2, J8, J12, J16, J20, etc.). Plus récemment, nous nous sommes intéressés aux approches par méthodes mixtes (e.g., J13, R1, etc.). Nous sommes en effet convaincus que la nature des questions de recherche, en premier lieu, doit guider le choix d une méthode de recherche et non l inverse. En outre, la mobilisation de différentes méthodes de recherche nous a notamment aidés à examiner une grande variété de questions selon différentes perspectives. 1 Voir la «Liste des publications» attaché dans le Curriculum Vitae joint (page 75). Les références se rapportent à cette «Liste des publications» dans l'ensemble de la thèse HDR, où J - indique un article de journal, C - indique un document de conférence, B - indique un chapitre de livre, et R - indique un document en cours d évaluation dans une revue. 13 P age

14 Nos contributions pour la recherche en systèmes d information sont présentées ci-après pour chacun des axes. (1) Management des TIC dans le secteur public et les institutions gouvernementales La façon dont les services gouvernementaux sont impactés par les TIC est une question importante pour la recherche et la pratique en SI tant en France qu à l étranger. Le développement de l Internet et plus largement des TIC a en effet permis aux institutions gouvernementales de développer des approches qui leur permettent de se rapprocher des citoyens et des entreprises, afin de leur offrir un meilleur service. En contrepartie, ces transformations peuvent avoir des impacts sur la qualité de la gestion de ces institutions. Nos recherches sur cette thématique visent ainsi à mieux comprendre l implantation, l adoption et l impact de l e-gouvernement selon différentes perspectives, comme la confiance des citoyens, la richesse nationale et la corruption (e.g., J1, J10, J11, J13, J15, J27, etc.). Nous avons ensuite choisi d analyser la proposition de valeur dans le e-gouvernement, en particulier en présence de multiples parties prenantes qui poursuivent des objectifs différents (e.g., J10, J24, J27, etc.). Nos travaux les plus récents sur le sujet revisitent certaines des grandes théories générales de l implantation et de l adoption des TIC, afin de prendre en compte les spécificités du contexte de l e-gouvernement et du secteur public (e.g., C12, C17, C50, etc.). La réalisation de ces travaux nous a amenés à utiliser différents cadres théoriques et méthodes de recherches, en fonction de nos questions de recherche. Ainsi, dans notre étude qui examine le rôle de la confiance dans la facilitation et le succès de l implantation des technologies de l e-gouvernement, nous mobilisons le modèle du succès des systèmes d information de Delone et McLean. Ce modèle nous a permis de conceptualiser un réseau nomologique qui lie les dimensions de la confiance dans l e-gouvernement aux dimensions de la qualité du système d information et d analyser leur impact sur les intentions des citoyens de continuer à utiliser les services d e-gouvernement (J11). Le modèle de recherche a été testé via des données issues d une enquête que nous avons réalisée auprès de 214 utilisateurs d outils d e-gouvernement à Singapour. Nous avons effectué des analyses par équations structurelles. Plusieurs de nos études proposent une analyse comparée de l e-gouvernement dans différents pays afin de mieux comprendre les facteurs facilitateurs et les impacts de l e-gouvernement (e.g. J1, J10, J15, J17 etc.). Ces études mobilisent de multiples sources de données, qu elles soient primaires ou secondaires. Par exemple, notre récente étude qui examine le rôle et les mécanismes de l e-gouvernement sous l angle de leur influence sur une nation est fondée sur la théorie 14 Page

15 institutionnelle et mobilise des données secondaires de 63 pays portant sur 4 années (J1). Une autre de nos études examine le rôle de la confiance dans l adoption et l usage de l e-gouvernement. Nous mettons en œuvre une approche méthodologique qualitative, en mobilisant des données collectées à partir de 5 focus groups et d interviews individuelles. Ces données sont complétées par des données issues de sites Internet gouvernementaux, de discours de leaders politiques, de rapports qui portent sur l implantation de l e-gouvernement, de rapports émanant de coupures de presse, ainsi que de communiqués de presse (J13). Nous avons par ailleurs étudié des initiatives d implantation de TIC innovantes dans les institutions gouvernementales / l administration publique notamment dans les chemins de fer indiens (Indian Railways) (J12, J16) en mobilisant une approche par étude de cas. (2) Management des TIC dans les entreprises Le management des TIC dans les entreprises peut être très différent du management dans un contexte d e-gouvernement. L e-gouvernement est en effet avant tout motivé par le service offert aux citoyens. La réalisation de profit n est pas un objectif central dans ce contexte, à la différence des entreprises qui sont généralement motivées par le profit qu elles peuvent tirer de leurs activités, à l exception par exemple de certaines initiatives, comme l entrepreneuriat social qui vise à offrir des services peu coûteux à des membres défavorisés de la société. Dans cet axe de recherche, nous avons examiné les initiatives d implantation de TIC par des entreprises à but lucratif autant que par des entreprises qui poursuivent des buts sociaux (J2, J8, J20, J26, J28 etc.). Afin d améliorer notre compréhension des processus d implantation des TIC, la plupart des études que nous avons réalisées dans cet axe de recherche a suivi une approche qualitative par étude de cas. Par exemple, nous avons étudié comment la création de services numériques innovants pouvait réduire l inégalité d accès aux services sociaux par (J2). Pour ce faire, nous avons adopté une logique principalement fondée sur les services afin de repenser l inégalité d accès aux services sociaux dans les pays en développement. Ainsi, en adoptant une vision process, l étude examine le cas de deux entreprises indiennes, Aravind Eye Care Systems et Narayana Nethrayalaya qui ont développé des modèles de fourniture de services de santé durables, via la télémédecine, pour répondre aux besoins d une population rurale. L étude identifie les configurations de trois ressources en interaction - la connaissance, la technologie et les institutions au travers desquelles des objectifs centrés sur les utilisateurs, créateurs de valeur, consistant à multiplier les accès géographiques et à réduire coûts, peuvent être atteints. Ce travail présente des contributions importantes pour la recherche en SI. Il permet une meilleure 15 P age

16 compréhension de la façon dont les trois ressources en interactions ont pu être orchestrées en vue de créer de la valeur centrée sur le service selon différentes combinaisons l exploitation des ressources, la combinaison de ressources, et le renforcement de la valeur. Une autre de nos études, a mobilisé le concept de pleine conscience ou «mindfulness» comme ancrage théorique afin d examiner l implantation des technologies de puces à radiofréquence (RFID) dans une entreprise logistique à Singapour. L objectif de l étude est d identifier les routines associées à une implantation en pleine conscience d une technologie innovante. L étude met en exergue le rôle saillant des parties prenantes tant internes qu externes, qui doit être pris en compte lors de l implantation de ce type de technologies (J8). Dans notre deuxième axe de recherche nous aussi étudions la collaboration à l'intérieur et à l'extérieur des organisations. Dans cet axe de recherche, nous examinons non seulement les questions liées à l'adoption et à l'utilisation de nouvelles technologies collaboratives telles que les mondes virtuels (J7, R1, C14, C39 et C40), mais aussi les facteurs contribuant à un fonctionnement efficace des équipes virtuelles (C1). Ces études sont réalisées tant dans des contextes d e-gouvernement que dans des contextes d entreprises privées. Ces dernières années, le succès croissant de nouvelles technologies collaboratives, telles que les mondes virtuels et les outils de réseaux sociaux, a contribué à redéfinir les termes de la collaboration. Dans ce domaine de recherche, en nous focalisant sur les caractéristiques uniques des nouvelles plateformes collaboratives, nous nous sommes intéressés à examiner si et comment ces outils pouvaient être utilisés pour collaborer de façon efficiente, rendant potentiellement superflues les interactions en face à face. Par exemple, dans notre étude sur le rôle de l'absorption cognitive et de la confiance dans la collaboration sur le lieu de travail au travers de mondes virtuels (J7, JAIS), nous nous appuyons sur la théorie sociale cognitive et la littérature sur la confiance. Le modèle de recherche proposé reprécise le concept d 'absorption cognitive dans le contexte des mondes virtuels, puis le lie aux niveaux de confiance et d usage dans un contexte de monde virtuel. Le modèle est validé empiriquement à partir de données recueillies auprès de 197 utilisateurs de mondes virtuels à Singapour. Les résultats démontrent l importance du rôle de l'absorption cognitive et de la confiance des utilisateurs dans l'usage des mondes virtuels comme outils de collaboration. Une autre de nos études examine le rôle de l'intelligence culturelle dans la résolution des discontinuités culturelles dans les équipes virtuelles mondiales (C1, ICIS). Cette recherche exploite le modèle transactionnel du stress et de l'adaptation (Lazarus and Folkman 1984) afin 16 P age

17 de théoriser les mécanismes par lesquels l intelligence culturelle favorise la performance de l'équipe virtuelle. L'étude utilise les données recueillies par le biais d'une enquête réalisée en deux vagues, comprenant 128 membres d'équipes virtuelles mondiales appartenant à 32 équipes. Nos articles sur cette thématique se sont ainsi focalisés sur plusieurs aspects liés à l adoption, à l usage et aux impacts de ces nouvelles technologies collaboratives (e.g., J7, R1, C1, C14, C39, C40). Nous croyons que dans la mesure où de plus en plus d'entreprises investissent dans ces technologies collaboratives innovantes, il y a un besoin croissant pour une meilleure compréhension théorique aussi bien que pratique des déterminants de la réussite de leur mise en œuvre. (3) Management des TIC externalisées en outsourcing et offshoring Dans notre troisième axe de recherche, nous nous sommes initialement intéressés à comprendre les antécédents, motivations et impacts de la délocalisation des activités de service fondées sur les TIC (e.g., J25, B7, C4, C28, C51, C53, C58, etc.). Au fur et à mesure, nous nous sommes ensuite orientés vers la délocalisation des activités de services à fort contenu en connaissance, avec un intérêt plus particulier porté sur différents aspects du développement des SI (Information systems development - ISD) de façon délocalisée (e.g.c16, C38, C49 etc.). Lors de la réalisation de ces travaux de recherche, nous avons noté la prégnance du rôle de la relation entre le client et le vendeur, et de l influence potentielle de cette relation sur la performance de l ISD. Ces constats préliminaires nous en encouragés à porter nos recherches sur ces aspects de la délocalisation spécifiquement. Enfin, plus généralement, nous avons examiné les processus qui permettent le succès des initiatives de délocalisation des activités de service au travers de plusieurs études (e.g., J4, J6, J21, C2, C13, C44, C45, etc.). Pour mener nos recherches, nous avons mobilisé différentes approches théoriques et méthodes en fonction des questions de recherche à traiter. Par exemple, pour notre étude sur le rendement des contrats de développement de systèmes offshore (J7), nous avons étendu la théorie du contrôle, que nous avons ensuite appliquée à un contexte d externalisation délocalisée ou offshore. Ces développements théoriques ont été mobilisés pour examiner l'influence conjointe des mécanismes de formulation et d'exécution du contrat sur la performance en termes de coût et de qualité. Sur cette base, nous avons développé puis testé 17 P age

18 un modèle de recherche à l'aide de données d'enquête à partir de 169 projets de développement de logiciels en offshore. Une autre de nos études a examiné l'asymétrie de l'information entre le mandant et le mandataire et mobilise la théorie de l'agence. A nouveau, une méthode d'enquête est mise en œuvre, des données ayant été recueillies à partir de 55 répondants (J21). En outre, pour la réalisation de plusieurs autres études visant à obtenir une vue plus globale et complète sur le sujet, nous avons eu recours à l'analyse de données secondaires, recueillies auprès d organismes externes. Nous avons ainsi analysé les déterminants de l'intensité de la délocalisation (J25), les facteurs qui influent sur le choix du lieu de délocalisation (C16, C40), et l'impact de la délocalisation sur la performance des entreprises (C4). Enfin, nous avons réalisé une autre étude sur l'efficacité des mécanismes de contrôle et les configurations de ces derniers. Cette étude utilise les données de 8 cas pour identifier trois types de configurations de contrôle distincts, en vogue dans l'industrie de l'externalisation du développement des systèmes d'information (C2). 1.2 Projet scientifique Axe 1 - Management des TIC dans le secteur public et les institutions gouvernementales Aujourd hui, nous approfondissons notre analyse de l implantation de l e-gouvernement, en particulier en mettant en exergue les opportunités et sources d innovation dans ce domaine. Par exemple, un de nos articles en cours d évaluation pouvant potentiellement offrir des connaissances nouvelles sur le sujet (R2) examine l unicité du contexte de l e-gouvernement et théorise la nonlinéarité des relations entre la qualité de service d e-gouvernement et la continuation d usage ; un autre de nos articles en cours d évaluation (R3) examine l impact des émotions sur le jugement portant sur la qualité des sites Internet d e-gouvernement. Dans un autre projet de recherche en cours, nous examinons le rôle des acteurs politiques et d autres parties prenantes dans le cadre de la mise en œuvre des TIC dans le secteur public. Plus précisément, en utilisant une approche d'étude de cas, nous examinons la mise en œuvre de deux projets d implantation de TIC dans un organisme gouvernemental sur une période de 30 ans (C23). Malgré de nombreuses similitudes entre ces deux projets, l'un d eux a été un succès retentissant, tandis que l'autre a été considéré, jusqu à il y a peu, comme un échec. Dans un autre projet, en utilisant une analyse de données de panel, nous analysons 18 Page

19 l'impact des investissements dans les TIC sur des mesures opérationnelles, non-financières, en cohérence avec nos grandes orientations de recherche, notamment celles présentées dans le premier axe (J24). Ainsi, nous prévoyons de continuer à approfondir les questions touchant à la compréhension de la valeur crée par les TIC dans le secteur public et les organisations gouvernementales. Axe 2 Management des TIC dans les entreprises Souhaitant rester au fait des dernières avancées en matière d implantation de technologies innovantes, notre objectif dans cet axe est passé de l analyse d implantations technologiques simples dans les entreprises à celle d implantations qui impliquent l'innovation, soit en termes de nouvelles technologies et de nouvelles pratiques (J9 et J26), soit en termes de modèle d'affaires émergent (J2 et J20). En outre, en nous plaçant au niveau d analyse individuel, nous examinons l'impact des nouvelles technologies sur les salariés en termes de technostress (J3). En particulier, nous nous intéressons à savoir dans quelle mesure le stress induit par les TIC au sein des organisations peut avoir des impacts positifs et négatifs. Dans un projet de recherche sur ce thème, nous examinons les conséquences du technostress dans une entreprise en termes de productivité et d innovation (C26, C44). Nos recherches actuelles et futures sur la collaboration examinent ou visent à examiner plusieurs questions liées à l'utilisation de technologies innovantes permettant la collaboration virtuelle Par exemple, un de nos articles en cours d évaluation adopte la perspective de la confiance institutionnelle afin d examiner le rôle de la présence sociale dans la collaboration dans les mondes virtuel (R1). Cette étude adopte une approche par méthodes mixtes en utilisant des données quantitatives d enquête et des données qualitatives d interviews réalisés avec des utilisateurs de mondes virtuels. En outre, d'autres projets examinent comment ce nouveau type de plate-forme collaborative pourrait être utilisé pour l'entrepreneuriat numérique grâce à la collaboration virtuelle (C52) et comment la culture (C27) et le climat juridique (C46) peuvent influer sur sa réussite. En résumé, nos recherches dans cet axe sont transverses par rapport à celles qui constituent les trois premiers axes. Elles analysent comment les différents membres et entités 19 Page

20 peuvent collaborer les uns avec les autres de façon efficace au travers d un média virtuel, grâce à la technologie plutôt qu en face-à-face. Axe 3 - Management des TIC externalisées en outsourcing et offshoring Dans la perspective de nos travaux futurs dans cet axe, nous envisageons d examiner plus précisément les questions liés non seulement à la délocalisation des activités de service dans le contexte du développement des SI, mais aussi le rôle des TIC dans les résultats de la délocalisation de la recherche et développement à fort contenu en connaissance. Nos recherches sur ce thème analysent ou visent à analyser plusieurs aspects de la gestion des connaissances dans les projets d'externalisation / délocalisation. Par exemple, dans une recherche en cours, nous examinons l entrelacement du capital social et la capacité d'absorption en tant qu influençant les résultats d un projet (C15). Nous analysons également des questions relatives à l'orientation stratégique (C39) et à la décision de l'emplacement (C40, C16) de l'externalisation offshore. Récemment, nous avons approfondi l analyse de la mise en œuvre des projets d'externalisation à fort contenu en connaissance et avons commencé à analyser les raisons des demandes de changement dans ces projets innovants (C42). 20 P age

21 Success is not final, failure is not fatal: it is the courage to continue that counts. - Winston Churchill 2 Introduction A quick look at the top ten CIO concerns for the year 2016 reveals that at least six of these are directly related to ICT implementation and management issues -- technology alignment with the business, speed of technology delivery, innovation, value proposition to business, agility & flexibility, and cost reduction & controls (Andriole 2015). We also observe that these ICT implementation issues, identified by the Society for Information Management (SIM), have remained more or less stable for over a decade now. Standish Group Report (2014) on IT project failures also reiterates a similar sentiment. Despite the wealth of knowledge on the subject, accumulated over the years, IT projects still fail in large numbers and as many as 61.5% of all large company projects were challenged and finally only 9 % of the projects in such companies were successful (Standish Group Report 2014). Clearly, there was -- and still is, an imperative need to understand issues related to ICT implementation and management. From a research perspective, numerous issues regarding ICT implementation and management need deeper examination. For example, why some projects fail and others are successful? Do ICT implementation issues follow a different trajectory in business enterprises as compared to government organizations? How can innovative technology projects be implemented? How can the impact of ICT projects be measured? Literature on the subject is rich and has taken multiple perspectives and theoretical lenses. Despite the diversity of perspectives there is a general agreement in literature on the salience of people and process issues for effective ICT implementation. Nelson (2007) aggregated the knowledge gained from 99 ICT project management retrospectives conducted in 74 organizations over a seven years period and discovered that the factors leading to the failure/success of ICT projects can be classified into four categories people, process, product and technology. Among these most IT implementation and management challenges were unsurprisingly related to people and process issues. Our research agenda is primarily motivated by these findings and aims to explore different aspects of people and process issues related to technology implementation. At a theoretical level the approach has been to contribute through contextualized theory building. In the last few years, there have been numerous calls in the general management discipline (e.g. Johns 2006; Bamberger 2008) to undertake context-specific theorization. 21 Page

22 Lately, even within the information systems (IS) discipline there have been similar calls to undertake projects that have the potential to theorize for specific contexts (e.g. Hong et al. 2014). Though in our research, we have leveraged multiple theoretical lenses, the focus has been on context specific theorization specifically for people and process related issues concerning ICT implementation and management. This Diplôme d Habilitation à Diriger des Recherches (HDR) dissertation is written with a view to describe and synthesize our research in the broad domain of information and communication technology (ICT) implementation and management conducted during the past 12 years of academic life. Synthesizing the research has helped to ruminate and reflect on the core ideas that we have been working on during this academic journey. It has also helped to better situate the contributions in the broader theoretical domain, whereby providing a clearer view about our future research path and aspirations. Such visualization is also helpful to hone the ability to supervise doctoral students in their research endeavors, which is one of the key objectives of HDR. Here, we would also like to highlight that the research beliefs in this academic journey have been largely framed by the prior professional experience of around 10 years, where in addition to routine managerial responsibilities, technology implementation was a major task. Such an experience has shaped the research agenda which is firmly grounded in relevant real life problems aiming to provide actionable solutions for the industry. The broad orientation of the research agenda has been to explore the implementation and management of ICT by organizations. But within this broad orientation (that has been evolving over time from simple ICT implementations to more complex -- innovation oriented ICT implementations), we have examined multiple contexts and also different aspects of ICT. The research conducted so far can be classified into three broad themes, namely - (1) Management of ICT in Public Sector and Government, (2) Management of ICT within Business Enterprises, and (3) Management of Externalized ICT as outsourcing and offshoring. The first theme, which concerns examining technological issues related to e-government and public sector organizations is very different from the second theme that pertains to technological issues related to business enterprises. Though many of the theories leveraged for examining the first two themes are similar, we find that the context of government/public sector is very dissimilar from that of business enterprises. In a recent research paper, which is currently under review, we use context based 22 P age

23 theorization to further tease out these nuances (R2 2 ). Within the second theme, we also describe technology enabled collaboration and new technology implementation within organizations such as virtual worlds (VWs), mobile technology, and more recently application based platforms. The third theme describes management of technologies externalized outside the organization (both for government as well as for business enterprises) and contributes to the theme of outsourcing and offshoring. The research program undertaken over the years can be summarized in Figure 1. Implementation and Management of ICT I Management of ICT in Public Sector and Governments III Management of Externalized ICT as Outsourcing and Offshoring II Management of ICT within Business Enterprises Management of ICT Enabled Innovation Figure 2. Broad Research Orientation and Themes Figure 2 not only depicts the broad orientation of our research and its evolution over time, but also shows the three research themes and the interlinkages between them. Though our original research agenda focused on ICT implementation and management in general, over the years our research interests have moved towards innovative aspects related ICT management --spanning from examining new innovative technologies such as Virtual Worlds (VWs) and Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) to analyzing innovative applications of existing technologies to serve new user groups such as the use of telemedicine initiatives for serving rural communities in developing 2 Please see the attached List of Publications in the attached Curriculum Vitae (page 75) to refer to the research paper. I have made similar references to this List of Publications in the entire HDR dissertation, where J - indicates a journal paper, C - indicates a conference paper, B - indicates a book chapter, and R - indicates a paper currently under review at a journal. 23 P age

24 countries or the use of platforms to foster collaborative innovation. This evolution of our research orientation is represented through the arrows in (Figure 1) which describe the movement of our research from 2003 till 2016 and beyond. Situated within this evolving research orientation are the three research themes which distinctly contextualize the different streams of our research. Before detailing the research program and the major contributions, it will be worthwhile to describe our research philosophy which can be summarized under three broad headings (1) Holistic approach, (2) Multidisciplinary nature, and (3) Multimethod strategy. 2.1 Holistic Approach Though our research agenda is quite diverse in terms of topics, the choice of research questions follows an approach based on Simon s decision making model (1960). The model describes any enactment decision in terms of three phases entailing different kinds of challenges - intelligence phase (why), design and choice phase (what, where and when), and implementation phase (how). In our research, we visualize issues regarding implementation and management of ICT comprising these three phases and leverage Simon s model as the basis for asking the appropriate research questions across all research themes elaborated above. During the initial years of my research on a particular theme, we focus more on the intelligence phase i.e. to explore the antecedents and motivations for that particular phenomenon. During later years our agenda embraces questions related to the design and implementation aspects such as questions related to the modalities or conditions under which effective ICT management and implementation could be achieved. For example, our research in the field of e-government and public sector initially focused on the antecedents and motivations (e.g. C34, C37, J23, J27, etc.) whereas gradually it moved towards more nuanced questions on how an effective implementation could be achieved for maximum impact (e.g. J1, J10, J11, R2, etc.). Similarly, in the area of ICT implementation in business enterprises, initial research focused on broad level strategic and macro issues (e.g. J29, J31) whereas later research on more micro issues related to implementation in specific contexts (e.g. J16, J26, J28). Now the research within this theme looks at more nuanced processual issues (e.g. J2, J8), innovative aspects (e.g. J20, J22) and impact (e.g. J3, C26). In a similar vein, the research on externalized ICT management (outsourcing and offshoring) progressed from a simple identification of antecedents of outsourcing/offshoring decision (e.g J25, C30, C64) to more nuanced issues related to the application of control theory and performance (e.g. J6, C2, C28). 24 P age

25 2.2 Multidisciplinary Nature It is my firm belief that to make a valuable contribution to the management discipline especially to have implications for practitioners in addition to research, it is essential to have a multidisciplinary approach. The problems in organizations and industry are far too complex to be dealt in a satisfactory manner with a single theoretical lens (see Van Dijk 1998). Hence, based on my research agenda I have drawn on multiple theoretical bases from different disciplines such as organizations (e.g. J1, J6, J10 etc.), marketing (e.g. J2, R2, C54 etc.), political science (e.g.), economics (e.g.), psychology (e.g. J3, J7, J8 etc.) and innovation (e.g. J1, J19, J20 etc.). This approach helps in arriving at theoretical conclusions that are closer to the real world business issues and hence can be leveraged by businesses for addressing their ICT related issues. We have followed a solution driven research approach, implying that we examine the problems in a way so that holistic solutions and implications emerge for both research and practice. For this often there is a need to go beyond the confines of the parent discipline. This approach provides an opportunity for better informed theory development in the parent discipline. For example, our research on the use of technology by social entrepreneurship oriented organizations for service innovations was grounded in a theory from marketing the service dominant logic (J2). But the findings from this research informed the information systems theories on digital divide by making it clear that for developing countries we need to rethink digital divide as service divide. Such a contribution to IS discipline was made possible only by following a multidisciplinary approach. 2.3 Multimethod Strategy To have a holistic research agenda on a topic requires having different kinds of research questions ranging from factual ones (what, where, and when) to more processual questions (how). In addition there are questions where substantial amount of subjectivity may be involved (why). For examining these diverse kinds of questions, different research methods may be suitable. For example, for factual questions a quantitative approach may be suitable whereas for a processual question qualitative method may be the most appropriate approach. We believe that the nature of research question should decide the choice of research method and not vice-versa (Orlikowski and Baroudi 1991, Srivastava and Teo 2006). Consequently, in our research, we have used different kinds of research methods, that include survey method (e.g. J3, J6, J7, J9, J11, R1, R2, R3 etc.), archival data analysis (e.g. J1, J10, J15, J17, J23, J25, R4, etc.), case study method (e.g. J2, J8, J12, J16, J20, J26, J28 etc.) and lately mixed-methods approach (e.g. J11, R1, etc. ) which in many situations provides richer insights than either of the methods individually (Venkatesh et al. 2013). The ability to use different research methods assists us in examining a variety of interesting 25 P age

26 research questions from different perspectives. This further adds to the richness and actionability of the research findings. In fact the three aspects of our underlying research philosophy - (1) holistic approach, (2) multidisciplinary nature, and (3) multimethod strategy are complementary to each other and have helped us conduct consumable rigorous research with relevance (Benbasat and Zmud 1999; Robey and Markus 1998). 2.4 Structure of the Dissertation The dissertation starts with an introductory section, the primary purpose of which is to introduce the research direction and the major research themes (Figure 2). The broad orientation of our research agenda has been to explore the implementation and management of ICT by organizations. But within this broad orientation (which has been evolving over time from simple ICT implementations to more complex-- innovation oriented ICT implementations), we have examined multiple contexts and also different aspects of ICT. In this section, we also introduce and describe our research philosophy which consists of a holistic approach, multidisciplinary nature and multi-method strategy. A holistic approach implies examining different kinds of challenges associated with the implementation and management of ICT that not only take into account the - intelligence phase (why), design and choice phase (what, where and when), but also the implementation phase (how). Simon s decision making model is the basis for asking the appropriate research questions across all our research themes. Multidisciplinary nature implies visualizing a research problem from multiple theoretical lenses and disciplines. The research, though contextualized in information systems discipline draws from multiple disciplines such as economics, psychology, marketing, public-policy etc. Multimethod strategy indicates the use of different research methods for examining the specific research questions. The underlying philosophy being that the type of research question should decide the research method. Accordingly, our research has been conducted using different kinds of qualitative, quantitative and mixed-methods. The next section describes summarizes and describes some the key research projects classified according to the three research themes highlighted in Figure 2. The three broad themes being - (1) Management of ICT in Public Sector and Government, (2) Management of ICT within Business Enterprises, and (3) Management of Externalized ICT as outsourcing and offshoring. The first theme concerns examining technological issues related to e-government and public sector organizations. The second theme describes the issues related to management and implementation of technology including innovative collaborative technologies by private business 26 Page

27 enterprises. The third theme describes management of technologies externalized outside the organization (both for government as well as for business enterprises) and contributes to the theme of outsourcing and offshoring. The next section titled future research perspectives first provides a theme wise synthesis of major research implications and directions for future research. Then, we abstract the key metalearnings from the research done in the past 12 years. These abstractions not only provide a synthesized view of the work done so far but also chart a direction for our future research. These three abstractions being:- 1. Trust-theoretic models offer a unique opportunity to examine technology implementation. 2. Innovation through technology is about applying a service-centric approach. 3. Effective technology enabled working is about managing control configurations. Subsequent to discussing the future research perspectives, we deliberate on the strategies for continuing the research agenda forward. We plan to pursue this agenda through three major modalities (1) Develop rich research collaborations (2) Pursue fruitful doctoral supervision, and (3) Iterate between research and teaching. Together, these three modalities will help in making the intended contribution to the body of knowledge in the coming years. 27 P age

28 3 Research Themes The three themes around which our research program is structured are (1) Management of ICT in Public Sector and Government, (2) Management of ICT within Business Enterprises, and (3) Management of Externalized ICT as Outsourcing and Offshoring. In the section that follows, we first give a brief introduction to each of these themes and then discuss the key implications of our research within each of these themes. 3.1 Theme #1: Management of ICT in Public Sector and Government It is quite intriguing to understand the ways in which government services could be impacted by technology. Especially, with the development of Internet, government has the possibility of utilizing new technologies for better connecting with the citizens and businesses with a view to provide them with better services. This in turn may have impacts on the citizen s and the nation s prosperity as a whole. Our research within this theme focuses on understanding the implementation, adoption and impact of e-government from different perspectives such as -- citizen s trust, national prosperity, corruption, etc. (e.g., J1, J11, J12, J14, J16, J28, etc.). We also examine the meaning of value in e-government scenario, which becomes very hard to define given multiple stakeholders pursuing different (often conflicting) objectives (e.g., J11, J26, J27, etc.). Our recent research questions on the subject analyze the need to revisit and contextualize some general theories of ICT adoption and implementation, because of the unique environment within which by e-government and public sector functions (e.g. C12, C17, C50, etc.). In addition to using different theoretical lenses, we have utilized different research methods -- depending on the specific context of the research question. For example, in the study that examines the role of trust in facilitating successful e-government implementation, leverages Delone and McLean information systems success model for conceptualizing the nomological network relating the dimensions of trust in e-government with information systems quality dimensions and their consequent impact on the citizens e-government continuance intention (J12). The proposed nomological network was tested using survey data collected from 214 e- government users in Singapore through structural equation modelling. But depending on the research objectives we have used other methods of analysis for answering the questions. For many of our cross-country studies on e-government that aim to understand the enablers, impediments and impacts of e-government initiatives have used secondary data analysis (e.g. J1, J11, J16, J20 etc.). For example, our recent study that examines the role and mechanisms of e-government in influencing corruption in a nation is grounded in the institutional theory and utilizes secondary 28 Page

29 panel data from 63 countries across 4 years (J1). In a similar vein, one of the studies on e- government that examines the role of trust in e-government adoption and usage follows a qualitative research methodology utilizing primary data collected from focus groups and one-toone respondent interviews. The research also utilizes secondary data collected from government Web sites, speeches of political leaders, e-government implementation reports, newspaper reports, and media releases (J14). In addition, we have also examined some of the innovative ICT implementation initiatives by the government / public sector such as Indian Railways (J13, J19) using a case study approach. Currently, the interest is to examine some of the nuanced aspects of e-government implementation that can offer some innovative insights on the subject. For example, one of the articles under revision (R2) examines the uniqueness of the e-government context and theorizes the nonlinear relationships between e-government service quality and continued usage intention and another of the articles under revision (R3) examines the role of emotions in affecting the quality judgement of e-government websites. The following Table 1, summarizes my key research conducted within this theme. Table 1. Theme 1: Management of ICT in Public Sector and Government Theme 1: Management of ICT in Public Sector and Government No. Objective Theory Methodology Main Findings J1 To examine if e-government development helps alleviate corruption in a nation Institutional theory and literature on information technology impact Panel analysis of secondary data for 4 years from 63 countries E-government development alleviates corruption in a nation s stakeholder service systems (business and citizen systems) through national political, legal and media J5 29 P age To examine reasons for information systems failures and successes J10 To examine the facilitators of e- government and e-business Multiple theoretical lenses Technology, Organization, Environment (TOE) framework Compilation of panel discussion reports from different perspectives Secondary data from 113 countries analyzed using structure institutions Several key issues for failures emerged, such as the need to study problems from multiple perspectives, to move beyond narrow considerations of the IT artefact, and to venture into underexplored organizational contexts, such as the public sector. National ICT infrastructure appears to be important for both e-government and e- business. Quality of national human capital emerges as a

30 development, the relationship between e- government and e-business, and their collective impact on national economic performance J11 To examine factors contributing to the success of e-government initiatives J13 To examine how trust in government and trust in Internet technology influences adoption and usage of e- government in a nation Delone and McLean information systems success model and theories of trust Theories of trust equation modelling Survey data from 214 Singapore e- government website users combined with qualitative data about their use Five focus groups comprising total 45 participants and follow-up interviews with 27 participants significant facilitator for e- government but not for e- business, whereas national environment (institutional and macro-economic) appears to be the key enabler for e-business, but not for e- government. Findings demonstrate the significant and intertwined roles of e- government and e-business in enhancing the national economic performance. Results show that trust in government, but not trust in technology, is positively related to trust in e- government Web sites. Further, trust in e- government websites is positively related to information quality, system quality, and service quality. The quality constructs have different effects on intention to continue using the website and satisfaction with the e-government website. Proposes an e-government trust grid for the adoption and usage of e-government, comprising two dimensions: trust in government and trust in Internet technology. Based on their levels of trust in the two identified dimensions, nations can fall into one of the four quadrants: Adversarial, Competitive, Cooperative, and Collaborative. The study delineates a set of lessons learned for engendering citizen trust in e-government -- solicit feedback from citizens, demonstrate top leadership commitment and support, build institutional trust, cultivate IT literacy, 30 P age

31 J15 To examine the relationships of e-government development and e- participation with national business competitiveness and the role of country environment. J17 To examine the payoffs from e- government in the form of national performance J23 To examine the role of IT readiness of primary national stakeholder groups in a nation in facilitating both Resource based view theory and information technology impact literature Information technology impact literature Stakeholder theory Secondary data from 113 countries analyzed using structural equation modelling Secondary data from 99 countries analyzed using structural equation modelling Secondary data from 100 countries analyzed using structural equation modelling and enact comprehensive and effective legal systems. Results highlight strong association of e-government development as well as e- participation with national business competitiveness. Human capital and public institutions positively moderate the relationship between e-government development and competitiveness, whereas macro-economic environment marginally moderates the relationship in the negative direction. In contrast to this, the relationship between e- participation and business competitiveness is positively moderated only by national human capital. Results highlight significant association of e-government development with both the first order government efficiency parameters (resource spending efficiency and administrative process efficiency) and significant relationships of government efficiency parameters with the dimensions of national performance (reduction of social divide and business competitiveness). Important role of national business competitiveness in the reduction of social divide is brought forth through posthoc analysis. Results show that citizen IT readiness and business IT readiness are significantly related to e-government development, whereas citizen IT readiness, business IT readiness and government IT readiness is related to e- commerce development. On 31 P age

32 e-government and e- commerce development and their impact on IT usage by different stakeholder groups in a nation J24 To theorize and propose a framework for assessing e- government impact J27 To examine the factors leading to the development of e-government in a nation Different e- government related studies Technology, Organization, Environment (TOE) framework Literature review and synthesis Secondary data from 115 countries analyzed using structural equation modelling the other hand both e- government development and e-commerce development are related to IT usage by all the three stakeholder groups, namely citizens, businesses and government. The synthesized model delineates three government and five citizen areas where e-government may create an impact. The three government areas are: policy making, program administration, and compliance. The five citizen areas are: financial, political, social, ideological and stewardship. The impact in these areas is created because of two major value generating mechanisms: enhancements in efficiency and enhancements in effectiveness. Further, the impact is created at different levels of analyses: local, state and central governments. Research highlights the importance of national technological and organizational (human capital) contexts for e- government development. Results also show that national environment (institutional and macroeconomic) is not a significant facilitator for e- government development. Further, post hoc analysis reveals the anomalous significant relationship of public institutions with e- government development in the negative direction. 32 P age

33 Key Implications Theme #1 The key implications of the research in this theme are broadly related to two aspects. First, e- government and ICT in public sector needs to be examined at different levels of analysis to have a holistic theory building approach. Second, the implementation of e-government and technology initiatives in government are far too complicated as many actors are involved and measuring their impact is also very complicated. The studies comprising this theme have been conducted at different levels of analysis - individual level (e.g. J11, J13, R3), organizational/country level (e.g. J12, J16, C24) and crosscountry-level (e.g. J10, J15, J17). The nature of e-government and public services has different theoretical issues that need to be examined and tackled at different levels. But the implications at one level might influence the understanding at a different level. J11 theorizes the role of trust in e-government success from an individual citizen s perspective. Despite, the importance of understanding the success of e-government Web sites, prior to this study there had been no discussion in literature on this important topic. Leveraging the updated DeLone and McLean IS success model, the study examines the role of trust in e-government success from an individual citizen s perspective. The proposed theoretical model is tested via a survey of 214 Singapore e- Government Web site users. The results (Figure 3) are very interesting because they show that at an individual level though trust in e-government is imperative for e-government success, it is the trust in government that matters more as compared to trust in technology. Trust in Government Information Quality Intention to Continue Using Trust in Technology Trust in e-government Web Site System Quality User Satisfaction Service Quality Significant Relationship Non-significant Relationship Figure 3. Trust and E-Government Success (Source: J11) 33 P age

34 Thus citizen s trust in government is salient for having positive perceptions about information quality, system quality and service quality and consequently the intention to continue using e- government services. Thus, from the perspective of trust lens, citizens are looking for a trust worthy government. Further, we find that only the active users (who use e-government for transactional purposes) may actually need to trust the technology, passive users (who use e- government for informational uses) may just need to trust the government for fostering adequate trust in e-government and its consequent success. Thus, the research provided insights about the role of trust and also its relationship with the nature of usage. Similarly, recent research at individual level of analysis (R2) shows that the context of e-government is very different from other contexts and also that the quality assessment of the e-government websites is often related to the emotions evoked when using such websites (R3) which might also be dependent on trusting beliefs that individuals have about the government. Building on the salient role of trust identified in earlier studies at individual level we started looking at organizational/country level issues to understand how such technology implementation may be impacted by organizational and government stakeholders. For example, the two studies on technology implementation in Indian Railways (J12, J16), which is a government organization, show the power dynamics orchestrated by the different stakeholders in the organization without taking into consideration the actual requirements of the end customers. Despite, the urgency of implementing a system for tracking freight railcars, the needs and aspirations of the internal government stakeholders have to be factored into the technology decision making process. But again, the research at this level of analysis reveals that nations may be different in the way e-government and technology initiatives are implemented by the government. For example, in Singapore the e-government implementation and its evolution over the years was guided by the government which had a pragmatic vision on what needs to be achieved from the different initiatives (C24). Hence, Singapore followed a guided evolution perspective in contrast to the usual sequential model which many countries had followed till then for e-government implementation and evolution (C37) (Figure 4). From the Singapore e- government experience and initiative we see that fostering trust in e-government and providing a sound legal system could be the policy framework under which e-government implementations are successful. Developing on the theme of trust and e-government implementation, the research agenda moved on to cross-country level of analysis where we examined different attributes using a variety of theoretical lenses for effective implementation of e-government. 34 P age

35 Information flow Information flow Service flow Information flow Service flow Money flow Integrated Transaction Government Service Delivery Automated Transaction Multi-direction Information Operation Uni-direction information Enablers Resource Drainers Lack of citizen orientation Lack of integration Lack of training Lack of value orientation Infrastructure Political Will Knowledge Trust Legal Framework Figure 4. E-Government Evolution Sequential Model (Source: C27) Most cross-country studies are devoted to examining the modalities and mechanisms for implementing e-government successfully along with its impact on different parameters such as national business competitiveness (J15) or ecommerce development (J23). Grounding our discussion in models of IT impact and theorizing for intermediary variables, we discovered that the relationship of e-government is far more complex -- with intermediate level process variables influencing the final dependent variables (J17). Recently, we tried to summarize the different types of mechanisms and impacts of e-government and discovered that the metrics for measuring e-government impact is interdependent on many factors and is very complex when compared to measuring the impact of IT implementations in private business enterprises. While the metrics in private business enterprises are generally related to wealth, revenue or profits, for e-government implementations most of the important metrics are non-monetary. For example, the e-government framework presented (Figure 5) in one of the recent studies (J24), shows that there are several impact variables and also there are a variety of process variables influencing the final dependent variable. 35 P age

36 Government Policy making Program administration Compliance E-Government Local State Federal Citizens Efficiency Effectiveness Financial Political Social Ideological Stewardship Technology Level Process Impact Figure 5. Complexity of E-Government Impact (Source: J24) In most of our e-government studies there is a clear distinction as per the level of analysis and trust emerges as an important issue for e-government success. In a recent study, we attempted to combine many of these issues together. At a broad level we considered a reduction in corruption as a mechanism for generating trust in government. But corruption in a nation could be impacted by e-government development itself (J1). Leveraging institutional theory and theories of IT impact we developed a model linking e-government with institutional level variables in a nation which in turn would impact the individual level service usage systems by businesses and citizens leading to an attenuation of corruption (Figure 6). Specifically, the study theorizes the relationship between e-government and corruption at two levels: (1) base corruption observed in national institutions (political, legal, and media institutions), and (2) permeated corruption in the national stakeholder service systems (business and citizen systems). Further, using panel data from 63 countries over a 4-year period, the direct and mediated effects of e-government on corruption in national institutions and stakeholder service systems, respectively are tested. The study provides preliminary insights into the mechanisms through which corruption manifests in a nation and demonstrates how e-government can be helpful in alleviating it. 36 P age

37 Corruption in Political Institutions Corruption in Business Systems E-government Development Corruption in Legal Institutions Corruption in Citizen Systems Corruption in Media Institutions Significant Relationship Non-significant Relationship E-government Development Base Corruption Permeated Corruption National Institutions National Stakeholder Service Systems Figure 6. Influence of E-Government on Corruption Combining Levels of Analysis (Source: J1) This proposed and validated model makes a unique contribution to literature as (1) it combines different levels of analysis -- country-level institutions with individual and business level service systems, (2) it views e-government as a mechanism for reducing corruption which in turn is expected to enhance user trust in government. If we connect this finding to previous e- government studies described earlier in this document, we observe that a reduction in corruption through e-government implementation would lead to greater transparency and trust in government, which would consequently lead to continued usage of e-government (J11). This can 37 P age

38 become a virtuous cycle, and enhancing transparency can be one of the objectives that should be pursued by governments if they want to have foster continued usage of the implemented e- government systems. The proposed model provides the initial foundation for a new theory of digital corruption mitigation along with continued usage of e-government systems. Considering the complexity in implementation of e-government systems, we plan to continue examining issues related to e-government especially those related to value creation and measurement by such ICT implementations. 3.2 Theme #2: Management of ICT within Business Enterprises The next theme examines implementation and management of ICT within business enterprises. This can be very different from implementing and managing e-government initiatives; primarily because the objective of government technology projects is to provide service to the citizens, which is in sharp contrast to the profitability related objectives pursued by private business enterprises. Although, it should be noted that for private social entrepreneurship initiatives the objective could be to provide service to the underserved sections of the society in a cost effective manner. In this theme, we have examined implementation and management of ICT initiatives by for profit as well as socially driven enterprises (e.g. J2, J4, J9, J18, and J22). Socially driven enterprises could be non-profit or not for profit enterprises. While, non-profit enterprises do not make any profits, not for profit enterprises are mission driven social enterprises and can make modest profits that can help expand their mission (but making profits is not the prime objective). For having a nuanced understanding about the implementation process, studies in this stream of research have mostly leveraged qualitative case study approach. But the underlying theories upon which these studies are structured are very diverse. For example, for the research on bridging service divide through service innovations (J2), we adopt a service dominant logic to rethink the concept of digital divide in developing countries and theoretically develop the case for examining service divide in such contexts. Specifically, adopting a process view, the study examines two Indian enterprises (Aravind Eye Care Systems and Narayana Nethrayalaya) that have developed sustainable telemedicine healthcare service delivery models for the rural population in India. The study traces the configurations of three interactional resources knowledge, technology, and institutions through which value-creating user-centric objectives of increasing geographical access and reducing cost are achieved. The theoretical contributions are largely associated with unearthing and understanding how the three interactional resources were orchestrated for service-centric value creation in different combinative patterns as resource 38 Page

39 exploitation, resource combination, and value reinforcement. Another study in the same stream of research, uses mindfulness as the theoretical lens to examine the RFID implementation in a logistics firm, YCH, at Singapore to identify the routines associated with mindful implementation of an innovative technology. The study delineates the salient role of both the internal and external stakeholders that needs to be factored into the mindful implementation of innovative technologies (J9). Another recent study, examines the practices and principles through which Schlumberger achieved networked information leadership by transitioning to a product-platform software architecture (J4). This study leveraged prior theoretical understanding about platform leadership. In addition to having significant theoretical contributions, all the studies in this stream of research also have useful implications for practitioners. This stream of our research agenda propels us to remain in touch with the latest innovative technology implementations in the industry at that point in time. Many of such new technologies such as virtual worlds (VW) can be leveraged for collaboration both within and outside the business enterprises. The growth of new collaborative technologies such as VWs and social networking tools are redefining the traditional collaboration landscape and are also changing the nature of work within and across the business enterprises. But such technology implementations are fraught with multifarious adoption and usage related issues. In this theme, we not only examine such adoption and usage related issues for these new collaborative organizational technologies (J8, R1, C14, C39, and C40), but also study the factors contributing to effective functioning of virtual teams (C1). Specifically, leveraging contextualized theory building approach, focusing on the unique features of the new collaborative platforms, we examine how these tools could be used to collaborate efficiently, potentially making face-to-face interactions unnecessary. For example, in the study on cognitive absorption and trust for workplace collaboration in VWs (J8), we draw on social cognitive theory and literature on trust. The proposed model not only re-specifies the concept of cognitive absorption in the context of VWs but also relates it to the level of trust and usage intention for VWs. The model is empirically tested via data collected from 197 VW users in Singapore. Results demonstrate the significant roles that cognitive absorption and user trust play in VW s usage as a collaboration tool. Another VW study uses institutional trust as the theoretical lens and proposes a contextualized institutional trust model for VW collaboration where the salient role of social presence is also incorporated in the model (R1). This study adopts a mixed methods approach using data from a survey and interviews with VW users. Another recent study examining the role of cultural intelligence (CQ) in bridging cultural discontinuities in global virtual teams (C1), leverages the 39 P age

40 transactional model of stress and coping to theorize the mechanisms through that CQ facilitates efficient virtual team performance which is tested through data collected via a two-wave survey design. Similar to the first theme, in this theme also, the current focus has moved from simple technology implementations in enterprises to implementations that involve innovation either in terms of new technologies and practices (J9 and J18) or in terms of emergent business model (J2 and J4). In addition, currently, we are also examining the impact of new technologies on employees within business enterprises in the form of technostress (J3). Particularly, we are intrigued by the manner in which the stress induced by enterprise technologies can have positive and negative impacts. The following Table 2, summarizes my key research conducted within this theme. Table 2. Theme 2: Management of ICT within Business Enterprises Theme 2: Management of ICT within Business Enterprises No. Objective Theory Methodology Main Findings J2 To examine the process through which technology enabled service innovations can be implemented by enterprises Service dominant logic, service science, digital divide Qualitative case based methodology adopted for examining two cases, secondary data and 69 interviews Different value creating configurations of three interactional resources knowledge, technology, and institutions identified, namely - resource exploitation, resource combination, and value reinforcement. The three distinct stages of service innovation evolution (idea and launch, infancy and early growth, and late growth and expansion) also delineated. Further, four key enablers for successfully implementing such initiatives abstracted. Especially the role of collaboration across multiple stakeholder groups appears to J3 40 P age To examine the role that individual personality traits moderating the Transactional model of stress and coping and the big five personality traits model Survey method where usable data comprised responses from 152 senior managers be the key. Although technostress creators are generally associated with negative job outcomes, our results also show that for individuals with certain personality traits,

41 J5 J7 J8 J9 influence of technostress on two job outcomes of job engagement and job burnout To examine reasons for information systems failures and successes To examine the factors associated with an individual s decision to adapt Virtual World use from a recreational context to a workplace context for collaboration To examine key attributes of mindfulness as well as identify specific organizational routines that foster mindfulness for effective implementation of RFID technology To examine the factors enabling the adoption of mobile payment Multiple theoretical lenses Information processing decision making perspective, social cognitive theory and literature on trust Mindfulness, stakeholder theory and organizational routines Literature on technology adoption and trust Compilation of panel discussion reports from different perspectives Survey data from 197 Virtual World users in Singapore Case study approach, primary data from interviews and secondary data Survey data from 109 Singapore residents technostress creators may result in positive job outcomes. Several key issues for failures emerged, such as the need to study problems from multiple perspectives, to move beyond narrow considerations of the IT artefact, and to venture into underexplored organizational contexts, such as the public sector. Results demonstrate the significant roles that cognitive absorption and user trust play in VW s usage as a collaboration tool. Results also show the imperative need for considering both cognitive absorption and user trust together in the proposed research model for theoretical parsimony Identify five routines that enable enactment of a stakeholder oriented mindfulness framework for innovative technology implementations such as RFID The study proposes two broad dimensions of trust facilitators: mobile service provider characteristics and mobile technology environment characteristics. 41 P age

42 systems through better collaboration and trust between stakeholder groups J12 To examine the implementation a complex new technology (RFID) in an organization in a developing country J14 To examine if a rational or an institutional perspective exists in the design of organizational websites J16 To examine organizational strategies to tackle technology obsolescence J19 To delineate a set of innovation strategy related principles for organizations in developing countries Stakeholder theory, IT implementation in developing countries Rational efficient-choice theory, institutional theory Stakeholder theory, risk assessment, power play Theories on innovation and literature on developing countries Case study approach, primary data from interviews and secondary data Content analysis from 243 organizational websites comprising three industries (IT, education and banking industry) Case study approach, primary data from interviews and secondary data Theoretical argumentation based on literature review Results suggest the overarching importance of consumer trust in m- payment systems. Further, differential importance of the theorized trust facilitators of perceived reputation and perceived opportunism of the mobile service provider, and perceived environmental risk and perceived structural assurance of the mobile technology, are also highlighted. The vested interests of stakeholder groups enable and constrain implementation of new technologies in large organizations. Such initiatives should take into consideration the ways in which the interest equilibrium of different stakeholder groups may be disturbed. Results suggest the salience of both the institutional and rational perspectives for the design of organizational websites. There are intraindustry norms of alikeness and also inter-industry differences owing to rational perspective. Technological obsolescence may not be dependent only on the age of the technology in use but also depends on the available options and the risk of new technology implementation Study suggests that to remain competitive firms in developing countries should move from a good-enough innovation approach to an augmented innovation philosophy. Specifically, the four principles suggested for the developing country firms 42 P age

43 are: (1) invest in research, (2) learn to fail, (3) be patient, and (4) alliance and acquire. J20 To examine the process through which a company transitioned successfully to software productplatform leadership J22 To propose a framework for designing a global innovation strategy especially in relation to the technology required to enable it J26 To examine the process through which a logistics company implements technology enabled innovation J28 To examine the process Literature on information innovation and software platform leadership Literature on innovation, culture and developing countries Literature and innovation and new technology implementation Theories of marketing mix, Qualitative case study approach, secondary data over 16 years and 23 structured interviews Qualitative theoretical argumentation through small illustrative cases Case study approach, primary data from interviews and secondary data Case study approach, The study identifies seven practices that the organization followed to become a software product-platform leader by overcoming the four challenges. These seven practices can be synthesized into three principles that firms implementing productplatform architecture should follow: (1) Develop Most Competitive Products on Extensible Platforms, (2) Nurture Resource Sourcing by Opening the Platform, and (3) Foster Control with Collaborative Growth The paper proposes a global innovation strategy framework with two dimensions of innovation process and innovation goal. Further, the study identifies different strategies that firms can adopt for innovation and the different information systems that firms need for such strategy implementation. Through a systematic case analysis, the study identifies six critical capabilities for fostering an IT enabled innovation culture in organizations. Further, the study distils three lessons learned for fostering innovation (1) Foster an innovation mindset, (2) Build partnerships, and (3) Manage risks and uncertainty. The study suggests a customer-centric framework 43 P age

44 through which a taxi company was able to successfully implement state-of-art innovative customercentric technological solutions J29 To propose a framework for effective IT training strategy for organizations to gain in terms of productivity R1 C1 To examine the role of social presence and user trust for fostering use of Virtual Worlds (VWs) for workplace collaboration To examine the role of Cultural Intelligence (CQ) in facilitating better virtual team collaboration and performance organizational learning and customer groups Theories on training and organizational hierarchy Uncertainty reduction theory and theories on institutional trust in online environment Organizational discontinuity theory, transactional model of stress and coping primary data from interviews and secondary data Theoretical argumentation based on literature review Mixed methods approach using data from 197 survey respondents and 29 interviewees Data collected through a twowave survey design comprising 128 virtual team members in 32 teams through which organizations can implement successful enterprise wide technological solutions. Specifically, by focusing on and integrating new marketing mix, organizational learning and customer groups perspectives. The study proposes a strategic IT training framework for organizations comprising training content and training sequence which needs to be different for different levels of employees in the organization for better productivity. Results indicate the salient direct as well as moderating role of social presence in the institutional trust model theorizing the use of Virtual Worlds (VWs) for workplace collaboration. The results validate the theorized Cultural Intelligence (CQ) nomological network for better collaboration and performance in global virtual teams. Further, for the context of global virtual teams the salient role of role structure adaptation in also highlighted for facilitating creativity performance. Key Implications Theme #2 The implications of this theme are related to two major aspects. First, technology implementations within for profit private business enterprises are very different from social entrepreneurship motivated private enterprises. Second, implementation of innovative technologies within organizations is highly contextualized. 44 P age

45 From the research conducted in this theme, we observe that the technology implementations by for profit business enterprises has different challenges as compared to social entrepreneurship related projects. The major difference lies in the goal that these implementations are intended to have. While, for profit enterprises will have profitability as the main goal, social entrepreneurship initiatives have the service delivery as the primary objective. In the case of technology enabled innovation in the case of both Narayan Nethralaya (NN) and Arvind Eye Care Systems (AECS), we observe that the focus of the projects is determined by having a specific end in mind which is this case is to reduce cost (affordability) and increase geographical reach (accessibility) so that maximum people benefit from these programs (Figure 7). These objectives can be different for different projects. Interactional resources brought in by the provider and user service systems (orchestrated in different configurations) Service-Centric Value Creation Mechanisms Resource Exploitation Resource Combination Value Reinforcement Stages of Evolution and Dominant Interactional Resource(s) Bridging service divide by improving: 1. Accessibility 2. Affordability Knowledge Technology Idea and Launch Stage (Knowledge) Infancy and Early Growth Stage (Technology) Late Growth and Expansion Stage (Institutions / Technology) Institutions Enablers Obsessive Customer Empathy Belief in the Transformative Power of ICT Continuous Recursive Learning Efficient Network Orchestration Figure 7. Achieving Social Entrepreneurship Objectives Telemedicine at NN & AECS (Source: J2) The role of technology in such projects is more about enabling the achievement of specific objectives. In conjunction with technology, there are two other key resources that need to be considered for achieving such objectives these are the situating knowledge and institutions. And these resources can be combined in different configurations (resource exploitation, resource combination, and value reinforcement) to achieve the pre-defined objectives. The identified enablers reiterate the importance of building a learning organization which has an obsessive customer empathy. But for implementation the role of key stakeholders emerges as the important criterion and many of these key stakeholders are external to the service delivery value chain. For 45 P age

46 example, in the NN and AECS example, local governments, village councils, networks of social workers and community leaders emerge as key stakeholders and players in the process. These players and institutions are extremely important in the initial (knowledge) and expansion (institutions) phase. ROUTINES ATTRIBUTES Diversity Reluctance to simplify interpretations Commitment to resilience Information sharing Alertness Preoccupation with failure Mindfulness Reliance on expertise over formal authority Sensibility to operations Social exchange Training/Learning Figure 8. Achieving Business Objectives - RFID Implementation at YCH (Source: J8) In contrast to the NN and AECS case, from the case of RFID implementation at YCH logistics we observe the need to enable the stakeholder oriented framework but all these stakeholders are a part of the service delivery supply chain as seen in Figure 8. Though, we classify stakeholders as internal and external the external stakeholders are the customers of the 46 P age

47 organization which are very much a part of the delivery value chain. In addition, for such projects, profitability is the major objective whereas for social entrepreneurship projects, the primary objective is related to benefiting the end user. We also observe that implementation of innovative technology projects within organizations are highly contextual implying the need to situate such implementations into the specifics of the organization and the technology. From the cases of YCH, NN and AECS, we observe that all these projects are guided by the specific strengths and weaknesses of the organization. For example, the mindfulness within YCH was instrumental in helping the technology implementation. Similarly, NN and AECS had focused on the four enablers within the organization that led to a successful implementation - obsessive customer empathy, belief in the transformational power of ICT, continuous recursive learning and efficient network orchestration. In a similar way, we observe that Schlumberger, transitioned to a cutting-edge product-platform software architecture by embedding a leading geological modeling software product Petrel within Ocean, its collaborative open software platform through its seven practices that were used to overcome the challenges of the transition (Figure 9). Practices 1. Identify a modular software product that can be overlaid with a scalable software platform 2. Create a product-platform software architecture by integrating the identified software product and platform 3. Extend the platform knowledge ecosystem by fostering partnerships and alliances 4. Enhance the architecture functionalities by incorporating diverse internal and external products and platforms 5. Establish governance processes for ensuring quality and timeliness of architecture functionalities 6. Orchestrate solution development and distribution through unconventional channel partners 7. Coordinate sustained growth through communication to diverse target audiences at multiple events 1. To foster innovation and knowledge sourcing X X X Challenges 2. To secure core knowledge while ensuring platform robustness X X 3. To regulate the contributors network X X X X X X 4. To assure an adequate quantity of high-quality contributions X X X X Figure 9. Practices for Overcoming Challenges at Schlumberger (Source: J20) 47 P age

48 In addition to examining the specific context of the organization, the technology itself may have a specific context. In the case of VW implementation in organizations, we observed that the theorization for the adoption models need to incorporate specificities within the VW technology. Hence as shown in Figure 10, for contextualized theory building in VWs, we leveraged the decision making perspective and social cognitive theory to identify the key research variables for VWs namely cognitive absorption and user trust. Decision Making Perspective Virtual World Characteristics Reduction of Perceived Cognitive Burden Cognitive Absorption Cognitive Engageability Minimization of Risk User Trust Riskiness Figure 10. Contextualized Theory Building for VWs (Source: J7) Results demonstrate the significant roles played by both cognitive absorption and user trust in VW s usage as a collaboration tool. Further, through a series of post-hoc analyses, the study demonstrates the imperative need for considering both cognitive absorption and user trust, together, in the proposed research model for theoretical parsimony. In a similar vein, another ongoing research on VWs leverages the uncertainty reduction theory (URT) to theorize for the salient direct and moderating roles of social presence in the institutional trust model contextualized to VWs for workplace collaboration. In the future, we plan to continue to analyse issues related to understanding the value created by information technology in business enterprises especially focusing on the two identified implications. First, for further teasing out the specific theoretical nuances of technology 48 Page

49 implementations at social entrepreneurship oriented organizations. Second, focusing on developing contextualized theories for implementing innovative technological solutions. With the growth of media-rich cognitively engaging technologies and also technologies enabling sharing and learning through cognition based systems there is a greater need for contextualized theory development which is a rich field for future research in this theme. 3.3 Theme #3: Management of Externalized ICT as Outsourcing and Offshoring In this research stream, we were initially interested in understanding the antecedents, motivations and impacts of information technology enabled outsourcing/offshoring which mostly comprised service activities. Hence, the initial articles on the topic have focused on these aspects (e.g. J17, B7, C4, C28, C51, C53, C58, etc.). Over time, our research started examining more knowledge intensive offshoring/outsourcing activities, especially issues related to the development of information systems and software (e.g.c16, C38, C49, WIP7, etc.). 49 P age While conducting initial research within this stream, we realized the significant role that the relationship between the client and vendor plays in influencing the performance of the information systems development. Hence, in subsequent research projects on the topic we have addressed these specific aspects of offshoring/outsourcing. In summary, we examined the processes through which the success of offshoring service activities initiatives can be orchestrated (e.g. J5, J7, J24, C2, C13, C44, C45, etc.). For conducting research on this theme, we leveraged different theoretical lenses and used different methods of enquiry. The situating theories and methods employed were dependent on the nature of the research questions. For example, for the study on contract performance on offshore systems development (J7), we contextualized and extended the control theory to the offshore outsourcing context. The proposed theory which examined the joint influence of contract formulation and execution mechanisms on cost and quality performance was tested using matched pair survey data from 169 offshore outsourcing software development projects. Similarly, for the study that examined the information asymmetry between the principal and agent in a re-sourcing context leverages agency theory and utilizes a survey method with data collected from 55 respondents (J24). On the other hand, many other studies where the questions relate to getting an aggregated view on the subject such as -- the determinants of offshoring intensity (J17), the factors affecting the choice of offshore location (C16, C40) or the impact of offshoring on firm performance (C4), we utilized secondary data analysis approach, where data collected from external agencies were used for testing the hypotheses. In addition, another study on the subject

50 that examines the efficacy of control mechanisms and their corresponding configurations uses data from 8 cases to identify the three different kinds of control configurations in vogue in the information systems development outsourcing industry (C2). The following Table 3, summarizes the key research conducted within this theme. Table 3. Theme 3: Management of Externalized ICT as Outsourcing and Offshoring Theme 3: Management of Externalized ICT as Outsourcing and Offshoring No. Objective Theory Methodology Main Findings J4 To examine the future of outsourcing in the Asia Pacific region Multiple theoretical lenses Compilation of panel discussion reports from different perspectives The outsourcing in Asia Pacific region has been evolving and several changes are happening in this area. For example, increasingly there is a growing thrust on innovation, multi-vendor sourcing, rural sourcing, outsourcing large packaged J6 J21 J25 50 P age To examine the influence of contract specificity and governance mechanisms on cost and quality performance To examine the intraorganizational Information asymmetry of re-outsourced offshore ISD outsourcing projects To examine if the determinants of information systems Control theory Agency theory and information asymmetry Information systems alignment and outsourcing literature Matched pair survey method from a field study comprising 160 software development projects Survey data from 55 personnel (23 Principals and 32 Agents) working on software development projects Secondary data from 152 offshoring firms applications etc. Results establish the significant complementary role of mechanistic governance on the relationships of contract specificity with both cost and quality performance variables. Further, mechanistic governance substitutes the impact of relational governance on cost performance. Results indicate that common domain knowledge, clarity of requirements, and communication effectiveness together comprise and contribute to information asymmetry between the principal and the agent in a re-outsourced scenario. Results indicate some similarities and some differences of offshoring from the outsourcing context with reference to the four

51 C2 offshoring are the same as information systems outsourcing To examine the ways in which the structural and process control combine to ensure project success Control theory Case study approach with data from eight information systems development outsourcing projects factors examined business size, business cost, business financial leverage and business performance. Analysis delineates three control configurations ; i) aligned, ii) negotiated, and iii) self-managed, which describe the combinative patterns of structural and process control mechanisms within and across different control modes. C4 To examine the impact of offshoring on firm performance C15 To examine if the social capital between the client and the vendor and the vendor s absorptive capacity affects offshore contract performance C16 To examine the factors that determine the attractiveness of a location as an offshoring destination C30 To examine the role of strategic orientation of a firm in determining Resource based view and resource dependency theory Theories on social capital, absorptive capacity Resource based view, entrepreneurship and international business literature Path dependency theory Secondary data from 172 offshoring firms Matched pair survey method from a field study comprising 160 software development projects Secondary data from 645 US based offshoring firms Secondary data from 306 US based offshoring firms Offshoring event and intensity have positive impacts of many of the performance variables. But some of these are different indicating the differences in short term and long term impacts. Results indicate the social capital influences both knowledge transfer (KT) and knowledge combination (KC) whereas absorptive influences knowledge transfer. Results also show the influence of both KT and KC on contract performance. Labor knowledge and skills are the prime criterion for selection of a location. For a minimum optimal level of skills other locational factors such as labor cost come into play. Results show the significance of innovation strategy and to some extent cost strategy as being related to the degree of offshoring. Growth strategy is not related to degree of offshoring. 51 P age

52 the degree of offshoring C64 To examine the role of performance downturn of a firm in determining the degree of offshoring Contingency theory and strategic change literature Secondary data from 306 US based offshoring firms Results show that firm s degree of offshoring is not associated with performance downturn. On the contrary, the degree of offshoring is positively related to firms level parameters like employee productivity and international experience. Key Implications Theme #3 The implications of this theme are related to two major aspects. First, for successfully implementing IT enabled services outsourcing/offshoring, managing the knowledge flows between the client and the vendor is the most important factor. Second, for effective knowledge management across outsourcing/offshoring projects, maintaining a good relationship between the client and vendor is imperative to facilitate the desired knowledge flows. The research conducted within this theme was on a variety of topics as highlighted in the earlier section. But the interesting insight that emerged by synthesizing the findings from our research on the subject over the years is the salience of knowledge management. For example, one of our earliest studies on the subject used path dependency theory to examine the role of strategic orientation in determining the degree of offshoring by a firm (C30). In a similar vein, we used contingency theory and strategic change literature to model the relationship between firm s performance downturn and degree of offshoring (C64). Together we found that degree of offshoring was associated with the low cost and innovation strategy but not to performance downturn as indicated in Figure P age

53 Strategic Orientation to firm strategy - Low-cost (significant) - Growth - Innovation (significant) Degree of Offshoring - No. of jobs -No. of functions Strategic Response to performance downturn - Profitability - Productivity - Market efficiency - Debt management Control Variables - Industry fixed effects, - Size (as measured by total firm assets) - Foreign sales as percentage of total sales Figure 11. Strategic Motivations for Offshoring - Low cost and Innovation (Source: C30 and C64) The association of low cost strategy with degree of offshoring was as expected given the focus of low cost with offshoring. But what was new and interesting was the fact that offshoring is also significantly related to innovation strategy which highlighted the salient role that knowledge management plays in the offshoring. This particular research was conducted using secondary data from different sources that comprised 306 US based firms that offshore. As a follow-up to this research, we examined the motivations for choosing the location for offshore destinations (C16 and C40). For developing the theoretical model for this research we leveraged the classical theories on location decision from international business literature to identify two kinds of attributes in a nation that firms look for before choosing it as a vendor destination nation structural appropriateness and labor arbitrage (Figure 11). Structural appropriateness refers to the presence of enabling structural features in a destination nation, which support the smooth conduct of offshoring operations. Structural appropriateness by itself may not result in any business advantage but the absence of these features may serve to disrupt the offshore operations such as Internet infrastructure, language of communication, political 53 P age

54 risk etc. Labor arbitrage on the other hand referred to the labor related advantages that contribute to the firm s profitability such as labor cost, labor skills and flexibility in labor laws. Structural Appropriateness Low High I Low Risk Low Returns IV High Risk Low Returns II Low Risk High Returns III High Risk High Returns Low High Labor Arbitrage Figure 12. Offshore Location Decision Framework (Source: C40) Results from this research indicated location decision as a two-stage decision by firms where in the first step firms choose a pool of nations with the necessary labor knowledge skills and in the second stage they choose the nation (amongst the chosen pool) which gives the biggest cost advantage. This result is interesting because in contrast to the popular belief that offshoring is about costs alone, we find that the firms look for requisite knowledge and skills even before looking for cost advantage. Through this research also the significant role of knowledge in offshoring decisions is highlighted. Encouraged by the finding about the significant role of knowledge management, we started examining the possible ways in which knowledge could be better managed across the client and vendor in an offshoring relationship. Hence we framed the next study as a matched pair survey study leveraging social capital theory and absorptive capacity as the guiding theoretical perspectives. The research model was theorized to examine the mechanisms facilitating knowledge transfer and knowledge combination across client and vendor thereby influencing strategic and operational performance of the IS development project (C15). The theorized model 54 P age

55 was tested via data collected from 507 respondents across 169 software development projects as shown in Figure 12. Social Capital Knowledge Transfer Performance (Strategic) Absorptive Capacity Knowledge Combination Performance (Operational) Significant Relationship Non-significant Relationship Knowledge Processes Vendor Performance Figure 13. Salience of Knowledge Management for Offshore Project Performance (Source: C15) Through this research we not only found the salient role that client vendor relationships in the form of social capital play for facilitating knowledge processes across the client and the vendor which in turn influences performance. Going further down the track of relationship management between client and vendor we started looking at the problem through the lens of control theory which we have found a very useful lens for examining offshoring/outsourcing relationships. But control theory literature revealed that though the relevant literature discusses different control modes (e.g., formal and informal control modes classified as behavior, outcome, clan and selfcontrol modes), it does not adequately distinguishes among the different control mechanisms enacting each of the control modes. Hence, in this research we first theorized for two control mechanisms operating within each of the control modes as shown in Figure 13. Structural control mechanism describes the what or the structure of the control mode. Process control mechanism explains how or the process through which the control mode is enacted. 55 P age

56 Control Mechanisms Structural Control Mechanism Framework governing coordination between client and vendor Enacted Structural Control Mechanism Process Control Mechanism Modus operandi of coordination between client and vendor Enacted Process Control Mechanism Contract Specification Contract Implementation Formal Mode Control Modes Outcome and/or Behavior Control Contract Formally specified outcomes and behaviors Mechanistic Governance Coupling Coordination between client and vendor governed by strict adherence to the prespecified contract Clan Control Shared Norms Shared beliefs, values and rituals Relational Governance Informal Mode Coordination between client and vendor governed within the broad framework of shared beliefs, values, rituals and the on-going relationship between the two Self-Control Self-imposed Norms Self-goal setting, self-reward, selfsanction Self- Governance Little or no coordination between client and vendor as the task is selfmanaged and self-monitored by the vendor Figure 14. Control Mechanisms acting within Different Control Modes in Offshore Relationships (Source: J6) Almost all outsourced client-vendor relationships function under the broad framework of a formally agreed upon contract that describes the structure (expected outcomes and/or behaviors) of their relationship. As it is very difficult to specify complete contracts, contracts are generally bounded in terms of their extensiveness and completeness. Hence, contracts vary in terms of their contract specificity, i.e., the explicitness of details specified for coordinating the relationship between client and vendor. Despite differences in their contract specificities, 56 Page

57 client and vendor have the option of choosing how they wish to govern their relationship. From a purely transactional perspective, they may decide to follow the specified contract very closely, in a mechanistic fashion, by not allowing for any deviations from the pre-specified outcomes and procedures or mechanistic governance mechanism. On the other hand, despite having a pre-specified contract, client and vendor can choose to follow the relational perspective termed as relational governance mechanism. In actual practice, although all clientvendor relationships have a formally specified contract (structural control mechanism), they follow a mix of mechanistic and relational governance (process control mechanisms). Using this framework, the study theorizes the moderating influence of mechanistic governance on the relationships of contract specificity and relational governance with information systems development (ISD) quality and cost performance. Results establish the significant complementary role of mechanistic governance on the relationships of contract specificity with both cost and quality performance variables. Further, mechanistic governance substitutes the impact of relational governance on cost performance. Thus, the study establishes the need for conceptualizing mechanistic governance as a viable and significant governance mechanism for offshore ISD contracts. The study also teases out the distinctions between the two prime contract types in vogue for managing offshore ISD contracts, namely, fixed price (FP) and time and material (T&M) contracts. The study thus contributes not only to control theory but also to the stream of literature examining offshore IS development contracts. Because we discovered the appropriateness of control theory lens for examining offshoring/outsourcing contracts, we are continuing to tease the control theory further to examine how structural and process control combine to ensure project success (C2), thereby developing the concept of control configurations, which can be a useful approach for analyzing problems even beyond outsourcing/offshoring. In the future, we plan to continue working on this theme and examine outsourcing/offshoring issues related not only to that of service activities but also high end knowledge activities such as research and development. Moreover, with the development of communication tools the trend is moving towards a skill based allocation of work across the globe and the role of global virtual teams is also an interesting extension of this research theme. 57 P age

58 4 Future Research Perspectives 4.1 Research Themes Key Implications and Future Research The following section provides a bird s eye view of the major implications for the key research conducted in each of the three themes over the past 12 years. Theme #1 - Management of ICT in Public Sector and Government The implications of the research in this theme are broadly related to two aspects. First, e- government and ICT in public sector needs to be examined at different levels of analysis to have a holistic theory building approach. In our research we conducted research at different levels of analysis individual, organization/country and cross-country levels. Because our theory building approach has been to have a holistic perspective on a phenomenon, hence it was essential to examine the e-government/public-sector technology implementation perspectives from different levels are analysis. Moreover, the stakeholders for e-government projects exist at different levels hence there is a need to examine issues accordingly. In our research, we observe that research findings at one level informs the research agenda at the next level. We have followed such a sequential approach in our research trajectory. In fact, some of the projects had an objective to have an integrated understanding at different levels. Future research should continue to have a similar approach so as to look at the problems in a holistic fashion. With the emergence of open data and connected systems there is a greater need to follow an integrative approach where issues at one level might impact another. For example, open data approach for citizens might require nations to strengthen their data and security laws to have the maximum intended impact. This appears to be a rich area for future research. Second, the implementation of e-government and technology initiatives in government are far too complicated as many actors are involved and measuring their impact is also very complicated. This has been a perpetual puzzle for e- government implementers. As seen from Figure 4, the objectives and stakeholders of e- government are diverse and sometimes may have conflicting interests. Hence, more research is needed to understand the concept of e-government success and impact. We plan to continue investigating such themes in the future. Theme #2 - Management of ICT within Business Enterprises The implications for this theme are related to two major aspects. First, technology implementations within for profit private business enterprises are very different from social entrepreneurship motivated private enterprises. Through the discussion in the previous section we have seen that technology implementation within for profit business enterprises can be very 58 Page

59 different from that within enterprises having social objectives. In addition to differences in terms of goals and objectives profitability versus service provision, there are also differences in implementation process. Though, in our research we have tried to tease out these differences but at a theoretical level more work needs to be done. For example, what is perceived as a threat for the for profit entrepreneurs might be an opportunity for social entrepreneurs. This thinking might also propel for profit entrepreneurs to look for fortune at the bottom of the pyramid (Prahalad 2004). This is a fertile area for future research within this theme. Second, implementation of innovative technologies within organizations is highly contextualized. In recent years, there has been a growing interest in context specific theory building (e.g. Johns 2006; Bamberger 2008). Lately, even within the information systems discipline there have been similar calls to undertake projects that have the potential to theorize for specific contexts (e.g. Hong et al. 2014). Implementation of innovative technology solutions are often situated within the specific context, which can be because of the particular idiosyncrasies of the organization or the specificities of the technology. Hence, at a theoretical level, to make a contribution we may require to move away from generalized theory building approach to specific context oriented theory building. This again opens up fresh avenues for future research in the field of innovative technology implementations within business enterprises which we plan to pursue. Theme #3 - Management of Externalized ICT as Outsourcing and Offshoring The implications of the research in this theme are broadly related to two aspects. First, for successfully implementing IT enabled services outsourcing/offshoring knowledge management is most important ingredient. Hence, a knowledge based approach needs to leveraged for future research examining outsourcing/offshoring based projects. With the growing importance of cloud computing, big data and specialized business analytics services provided by external vendors, the role of knowledge based services outsourcing/offshoring is expected to increase in the coming years. Second, for effective knowledge management across outsourcing/offshoring projects maintaining a good relationship between the client and vendor is imperative to facilitate the desired knowledge flows. For facilitating such knowledge flows, it is imperative to have proper controls in place between the client and vendor. In our research, we have already seen the usefulness of the control theory perspective which needs to be further developed for the outsourcing/offshoring context where we can conceptualize control mechanisms in terms of configurations. Future research can develop the theory of control configurations for effective working especially in a globally distributed environments. Another related area for developing control configurations is open source software development which many of the large firms are 59 Page

60 adopting to source the wisdom of the crowds but the key issues are related to governance of such projects which is again a rich area for future research. 4.2 Key Research Abstractions Through a synthesis of the research conducted across the three themes described in the previous sections, essentially, there are three key abstractions that emerge. These abstractions not only provide a synthesized view of the work done so far but also help in visualizing future research. In this section, each of the three abstractions is situated and discussed within the findings emerging from the research conducted by us so far. 1. Trust-theoretic models offer a unique opportunity to examine technology implementation. 2. Innovation through technology is about applying a service-centric approach. 3. Effective technology enabled working is about managing control configurations. Trust-theoretic models offer a unique opportunity to examine technology implementation The one thing that emerges very strongly from all the three research themes is the importance of user trust in all the contexts of technology implementation. Research conducted on the first theme of e-government unambiguously highlights the key role of user trust in e-government for its adoption and continuance. But the nature of trust and the way trust is fostered in e-government can be different from the way in which it is fostered in other contexts. For example, in the e- government context it is the trust in government rather than the trust in technology that contributes to development of trust in e-government (J11). This implies that governments should work on inculcating trust in government to have appropriate level of trust in e-government. For having more nuanced insights, we did a sub-group analysis and found that for active transactional users of e-government trust in technology also matters whereas for passive informational e- government users trust in government is what matters. Hence, as the technological sophistication and deeper usage of e-government websites increases, governments need to use trustworthy technology for enabling their e-government systems. This was charted in another study (J13) which highlighted the various possible quadrants where countries might exist at a point in time (Figure 15), but the key thing that the research found out was that even within a short period of three years there was a movement of citizen s trust perceptions from one quadrant to another. Hence, nations need to think of possible ways of fostering trust in e-government. 60 P age

61 Trust in Government Low High Co-operative compromise and implement Adversarial unfavorable and failure III I IV II Collaborative synergy and success Competitive unpredictable and sporadic Low High Trust in Internet Technology Figure 15. E-Government Trust Grid (Source: J13) For facilitating e-government usage user trust in government is essential. This could be enhanced by reducing corruption, which could be facilitated through e-government implementation (J1). This is an interesting synthesis because it implies that e-government could activate its own virtuous loop for continued usage if implemented for the right objectives. Thus, governments need to carefully plan for fostering trust for enhancing e-government adoption and continued use. The salience of user trust is not only valid for the context of e-government but also for other technological contexts such as adoption and usage of technologies for business enterprises. For example, our research depicted key role of trust for mobile payment system adoption (J9) and also for adaptive use behavior to adopt new innovative technologies such as virtual worlds (VWs) (J7). But context of VWs might introduce other variables for fostering trust such as social presence which need to be suitably incorporated into the trust theoretic models (R1). In addition to the theme of e-government and business enterprises, we also observe the salient role of trust through relational governance mechanism between the client and the vendor in facilitating quality and cost performance of offshoring contracts (J6). In summary, trust theoretic models offer an opportunity to theorize about the implementation of emerging innovative technologies. These 61 Page

62 models need to be developed and extended to better understand the emerging technological contexts. Innovation through technology is about applying a service-centric approach Customer-centric approach is often discussed but inadequately understood. In our research, we delineated the key role of identifying the customer needs for effective technology implementation more so for innovative technologies. In our case of Comfort Taxis, Singapore, we introduce a customer-centric framework that integrates three different perspectives marketing-mix perspective, organizational learning perspective and customer groups perspective (J28). The essence of the research was in identifying not only different customer groups (e.g. internal and external customers) but also learning about their needs and leveraging the revised marketing mix framework SIVA (solutions, information, value and access) to design the appropriate technology-enabled offering. The new marketing mix perspective was a service-centric approach to the old product-centric marketing mix focusing on the 4Ps: product, promotion, price and place. For innovative technology implementations customers are more interested in solutions to their problems rather than products. They want information about identified solutions rather than promotions. They view solutions in terms of their value rather than their price. And they want convenient access to the identified solutions rather than being bothered about the place. This required a shift in thinking from a goods dominant logic to service dominant logic (J2) as shown in Figure 16. Goods Goods-Dominant Logic Value-in-exchange for the consumer (goods user) created by the producer (goods provider) Required Value (Service) Service-Dominant Logic Value-in-use created jointly by the producer (service provider) and consumer (service user) Figure 16. Goods versus Service Dominant Logic (Source: J1) Through many other studies we demonstrated that for implementing innovative technological solutions the requirements of the key stakeholders need to be satisfied for private business enterprises (J8, J20 and J26), social entrepreneurship initiatives (J2) and even e- 62 Page

63 government initiatives (J1 and J17). But this requires a change in mindset to start thinking about technology as a means for providing innovative solutions rather than conceptualizing technology as an innovative product in itself. This has huge theoretical implications as it requires us to rethink technology from a service-centric logic rather than the traditional goods-centric logic. We believe that this framework has the capability to inform many of the future theories as we have seen in the case of AECS and NN (J2), where we re-conceptualize digital-divide as service-divide from a service centric approach (in place of a goods-centric approach) as shown in Figure 17. Definition Focal actor Bridging strategy Goods-Centric Digital Divide (Traditional) Haves and have-nots of digital goods and capabilities Provider of digital goods (producer-centric) Divide is bridged by provision of digital goods and capabilities Service-Centric Digital Divide (New) Haves and have-nots of digitally enabled services User of digitally enabled services (user-centric) Divide is bridged by providing access to digitally enabled services Bridging resources Digital goods and capabilities Orchestration of digital and other resources for service provision Role of agencies Provision of digital goods and capabilities Leveraging of digital and other resources to provide services Figure 17. Applying Service-centric Logic to Reconceptualize Digital Divide (Source: J1) Future research needs to examine the applicability of service-centric approach to the innovative technological solutions where the solution providers needs to start with the end in view. Firms can also use this framework to define their global innovation strategy portfolio which might be also help in better resource planning (J22). Effective technology-enabled working is about managing control configurations In recent years, because of the easy availability of real-time synchronous ICTs and the need to leverage distributed resources and skills, firms are increasingly depending on outsourcing/offshoring as a means for executing their business processes. In addition to outsourcing/offshoring many firms are also increasingly utilizing global virtual teams. But the greatest challenge in managing such distributed teams and client-vendor relationships is the definition of their roles and responsibilities. Control theory could possibly be a very useful lens to understand the relationship among various players in globally distributed teams and also in 63 Page

64 client-vendor relationships. Over the years, our research has leveraged and contributed to this profound theoretical lens. Our initial research using this lens theorized the difference between structural and process control mechanisms and exhibited the need to distinguish between the formulation and execution of knowledge based contracts defining the relationship between the client and the vendor. Using this theorization, we developed the concept of mechanistic governance for contracts, which was not conceptualized in prior literature (J6). In addition to showing that mechanistic governance complements the influence of contract specificity with both cost and quality performance, we also establish the substitutive influence of mechanistic governance on the link between relational governance and cost performance (Figure 13). Developing on this theme, we see that structural and process control mechanisms play out in different ways for fixed price (FP) and time & material (T&M) contracts as shown in Figure 18. FP Contracts Control Mechanisms ISD Quality Performance ISD Cost Performance Structural Contract Specificity Direct positive Direct positive Process Relational governance Mechanistic governance None Complements contract specificity T&M Contracts Direct positive None Control Mechanisms ISD Quality Performance ISD Cost Performance Structural Contract Specificity Direct positive Direct positive Process Relational governance Mechanistic governance None Substitutes relational governance Direct negative Complements contract specificity Figure 18. Control Mechanisms and their Influence on FP and T&M Contract Performance (Source: J6) In subsequent research, we further extend the theme of structural and process control mechanisms (C28). Grounding the discussion in alignment literature we show that the alignment between structural and process mechanisms leads to enhanced cost performance. Specifically, we show that mechanistic governance (process mechanism) complements the influence of contract specificity (structural mechanism) on cost performance. In a similar vein, relational governance (process mechanism) complements the influence of shared vision 64 P age

65 (structural mechanism) on contract cost performance. Further, working on the topic we identify the different control configurations that exist in outsourcing relationships between client and vendor namely aligned, negotiated and self-managed (C2) as shown in Figure 19. (Kirsch 1996; Kirsch 1997) (Srivastava and Teo 2012) J6 (Nuwangi, Sedera and Srivastava 2013) C2 Figure 19. Evolution and Contribution to Control Theory - Modes, Mechanisms and Configurations (Source: C2) We believe that control configurations is a very relevant concept to understand the relationships amongst different interaction partners and their influence on project performance. Future research can continue to examine its efficacy and applicability to various scenarios extending from outsourcing contracts to the functioning of global virtual teams. The identified research abstractions and directions for future research will continue to feed our research agenda for the next several years. For furthering these research objectives, we will follow a three pronged approach (1) Develop rich research collaborations (2) Pursue doctoral supervision, and (3) Iterate between research and teaching. We describe and discuss each these in the next section. 65 P age

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